Stefan's Florilegium

Paleo-Scribes-art

Paleo-Scribes-art - 9/5/97

³An Introduction to Palaeography for Scribes² by Nicolaa de Bracton of
Leicester.

NOTE: See also the files: alphabets-msg, scrpt-develop-art, inks-msg,
iwandpc-msg, calligraphy-msg, callig-suppl-msg, gold-leaf-msg, quills-msg.

************************************************************************
NOTICE -

This article was submitted to me by the author for inclusion in this set
of files, called Stefanıs Florilegium.

These files are available on the Internet at:
http://www.florilegium.org

Copyright to the contents of this file remains with the author.

While the author will likely give permission for this work to be
reprinted in SCA type publications, please check with the author first
or check for any permissions granted at the end of this file.

Thank you,
Mark S. Harris
AKA: Stefan li Rous
stefan@florilegium.org
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An Introduction to Palaeography for Scribes
-- by Nicolaa de Bracton of Leicester

So, you've been studying the art of calligraphy. You've learned some of
the basic hands, and perhaps are developing one or more as your specialty.
You've also done a few scrolls or other such calligraphed pieces, and are
wondering about ways (besides lots of practice!) to make your creations look
more medieval....

Welcome to the world of palaeography. Palaeography, quite simply, is the study
of the writing of the past. Though the field as a whole encompasses everything
from Egyptian hieroglyphics all the way up to the elegant hands of the
Victorians, we'll be concerned here with the branch of most interest to students
of the European Middle Ages: Latin palaeography. Latin was the language of
learning in the Middle Ages, and a good proportion of the works that scribes
look to as exemplars were written in that language. Much of the knowledge I'll
discuss will transfer well to vernacular writing, since in general the same
hands were used.

This past year I was privileged to participate in the Medieval Latin
Palaeography course offered through the Pontifical Institute for Medieval
Studies at the University of Toronto. Though I personally have done little
calligraphy since high school, this wonderful course has encouraged me to once
again pick up my pen and try out some of the hands studied.It has also given me
a few insights into how any scribe can pursue research into either individual
hands or into the field as a whole, and made me view calligraphy in the Current
Middle Ages with a whole new eye.

At the end of this article, you will find a bibliography. This will hopefully
be of aid to you as you research the evolution of medieval script. The rest of
the article will be confined to general observations which might be of help to
scribes. If what you wish is a more detailed overview of the history of script,
I can do no better than to recommend Bernhard Bischoff's Latin Palaeography
(see the bibliography).

A Brief Overview of the Development of Script in Western Europe
The first scripts to use what we would consider "modern" letterforms (I
use the quotation marks, because certain letters always retained some
flexibility in the way they were formed) were the Romans. Inscriptions on
monuments were usually done in a majuscule (or capital) script which we now term
Square Capitals, Quadrata or simply "Roman Capitals". For writing on papyrus
scrolls (and later, on parchment), the Romans used these letters as well, but
more often a hand generally known as Rustica or "Rustic capitals". Finally, for
short notes written in wax tablets, personal letters, and other everyday usage,
the Romans developed a cursive script, Roman cursive. Cursive scripts, while
they lacked the legibility of calligraphic (upright) scripts, were widely used
because of the time saved in writing them. While this script is virtually
illegible to the untrained eye, it would have a profound influence on the
development of script henceforth.

Uncial script began to replace rustic capitals as the main script in use
around the fourth or fifth century AD, and by the sixth century the Roman
letterforms were relegated mostly to use for headings or titles. Half-uncial,
the first minuscule script, also began its rise about this time. A minuscule
script was written between four ruled lines, rather than two, and is easily
recognized by the modern eye as having upper and lower case letters; the lower-
case letters have prominent ascenders (on letters such as l, b, d, etc.) and
descenders (on p, q, and g, for example).

Next on the evolutionary ladder were the national bookhands: Insular,
Visigothic, Beneventan, and Merovingian script. These scripts evolved from the
uncial scripts under the influence of the Roman cursive scripts. Insular, which
developed around the seventh century, was practiced in the British isles, but
was also imported to Europe by missionary monks. In England, Insular was used
until the twelfth century, but it survived until the nineteenth century in parts
of Ireland. Visigothic script is the name given to the Spanish national hand.
It developed in the late seventh or early eighth century in the Iberian
peninsula and was practiced until about the thirteenth century. Beneventan, the
national script of Italy (or more properly, of the Duchy of Benevento, in the
south part of Italy), was practiced between the middle of the eighth century
until the thirteenth century, though a few very late (16th century) examples
have been found in isolated areas. Finally, Merovingian hands were practiced
in France and western Germany, and date from the mid-eighth century to the early
ninth century. These include the Luxeuil, Laon, Corbie, and Chelles scripts.
All of the national bookhands also had cursive versions. These hands are most
noteworthy for their great number of ligatures ( joined letter combinations)--
especially the Merovingian hands -- and for the increasing use of abbreviations.

The Caroline minuscule script would eventually displace all of the
national bookhands except Beneventan. This elegant and legible script was first
used during the lifetime of Charlemagne (in the ninth century) and fairly
quickly replaced the Merovingian hands in Frankish-controlled lands. There was
a conscious effort to cut down on the number of abbreviations, and only a few
ligatures survived. By the twelfth century, it had spread to most of the rest
of Europe, though each region wrote the script a little bit differently.

It was around this time that one can note the first signs of the
development of the Gothic script in France. Gradually, scribes began making the
Caroline letters more and more angular, as a series of broken strokes, rather
than smooth, flowing strokes. They also began a practice known as "biting", in
which adjoining letters with rounded parts (bowls) would be shoved together so
that the bowls actually touched. Gothic script is also noteworthy for its large
number of abbreviations. This script had wholly replaced Caroline by the
thirteenth century. Gothic cursive scripts also began their rise in this
period, under the influence of charter and notary hands. The final development
of Gothic was the appearance of hybrid (or Bastard) scripts in the late
fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries, in which elements of both cursive and
calligraphic Gothic hands were intermixed.

There is no one single "Gothic script". The quality of the book the
script was used in, the purpose of the book, the date of the book, and the
region it was produced in all affected the way the script looked on the page.
Generally, the more expensive the book, the more calligraphic and clear the
script. Each region also produced its own versions of Gothic--for example,
Italian Gothic (also called Rotunda) tends to be rounded and very legible, while
German gothic is distinctive for the number of fine hairline finishing strokes
on letters.

The final hand to be developed before the advent of printing was the
Humanistic script. Humanist scribes were interested in copying classical
ideals, and they mistakenly believed that the Caroline minuscule was the hand
used by their Roman ancestors. Thus, the Humanistic script is simply an
elegant, clear adaptation of the Caroline script. These scribes also developed
an elegant, more cursive version of this script, which they termed Italic.
These two scripts were widely adopted by early printers; indeed, our current
Times Roman and Italic types are direct descendants of the Humanistic scripts.

Documenting Script
If you are interested in entering the calligraphy category of an Arts and
Sciences competition, or are interested in creating a scroll or document
specific to a particular time and place, it would be well worth your time to
find a research library with a good collection of manuscript facsimile
collections. The two best are the Codices latini antiquiores (commonly called
the "CLA") and Facsimiles of Ancient Manuscripts by the New Palaeographical
Society (both are listed in the bibliography). These produce single pages from
various manuscripts in order to illustrate trends in the development of script.
Script (not illumination) is the focus of these collections. When you examine
these facsimiles, you might want to keep the following in mind:

1. The general aspect of the script. Not all scripts are the same height;
some (like Luxeuil) are angular and narrow, while others (such as Uncial) are
rounded and full. Spacing (both internal and between words) is important as
well. Often the earlier the example in the history of a particular hand, the
less clear the spacing. Nice, even spaces between words may or may not be
correct!

The use of ligatures is part of this. In some hands (such as half-
uncial), ligatures--one or more letters within a word joined together--were
mostly used as a space-saving measure towards the ends of lines. In other hands
(Beneventan, for example), certain letters were always joined in ligature, no
matter where they were located in a line. Still other hands (Luxeuil, for one)
feature a dazzling variety of possible ligatures--some used more often than
others.

2. Harmonizing the script with the style of illumination. Common sense
dictates that using late Gothic with Celtic knotwork is probably a no-no. But
this problem is more subtle, and only observation and study will cure it.
(Along the way, you may pick up a lot of incidental information about costume!)

3. Layout. How does the script look on the page? Is there a lot of blank
space around the text? How does this change with the amount of illumination
that is added? Are there columns, or is there a single main body of text?
This, more than any aspect of calligraphy other than the script itself, is
responsible for giving a medieval feel to a piece of work.

Two often - overlooked aspects of medieval script

1. Mixed hands. I seldom see SCA works which utilize more than one script.
Here's an example: Book headings in medieval manuscripts were often done in
square capitals. Chapter headings would be done in uncials, the first few
sentences perhaps in half-uncials, and then the text in the main script. The
effect created is of larger letters at the top, followed by slightly smaller
letters, and then, finally, of smaller letters still. Very nice, and very
medieval!

2. Abbreviations were used during every period in the medieval era, but were
most prevalent during the era (12th-15th centuries) in which Gothic
predominated. Abbreviations allowed the scribe to copy faster, an important
advantage in an era when the rate of book production escalated rapidly. The
number of abbreviations used would vary depending on the text: Those intended
for "deluxe" purposes--such as books of hours or display Bibles--would likely
only use the most basic abbreviations, while works intended for more utilitarian
use and which were produced in volume would be thick with them.

The basic principles of abbreviation apply to the Latin language first and
foremost, (and it must be remembered that the majority of manuscripts before
1400 or so are in Latin) but some were carried over to documents in the
vernacular, especially to charters and notarial documents (the latter had its
own system of abbreviation, known as Tironian notes, which is another article
unto itself). However, the basics of abbreviation are adaptable to any
language. In brief, you may abbreviate by contraction (in which letters drop
out of a word: dominus => dns, with a long line over the top of the
abbreviation, to indicate that letters are missing) or by suspension (a common
practice is to drop the last letter or letters of a word and replace them with
an apostrophe or other symbol). There are also symbols which stand for groups
of letters ("9" before the beginning of a word, for instance, stands for the
prefix "con"). A look at one of the books on abbreviations in the bibliography
should give you visual proof of the way abbreviations work in Latin; these
principles may then be adapted to any language you choose.

Getting Access
If you are not affiliated with a university, this need not mean you cannot
get access to university and research libraries; however, you may have to jump
through a few hoops along the way. While seeing actual manuscripts may be
difficult (but not impossible) for the non-academic, many libraries are willing
to let amateur researchers use their collections of non-rare books under certain
conditions. You usually will not be allowed to check out books, so be ready to
spend time in the library. If you are making a special trip to research, you
might wish to write ahead; a professionally-worded cover letter describing your
interest and what you wish to see can go a long way towards proving your
seriousness. It's probably best to describe yourself as a "professional
calligrapher" in the letter (many SCA scribes I know do fit this description,
even if calligraphy is not their primary occupation). Since attitudes towards
the SCA in the academic world vary widely, I would advise not mentioning your
membership in the letter. If you still have a problem getting access, a letter
of reference from someone in academia, preferably a professor, will in most
cases get around the most stringent of restrictions. Since many research
libraries house one-of-a-kind collections, their caution is warranted. When you
arrive, dress casually, but neatly, and, if you have not sent a letter ahead,
introduce yourself. Depending on the institution, you could be granted
anything from full access to the stacks to having to request books to be brought
out for you and anything from a one-day pass to a photo ID which is more or less
permanent. Don't be afraid to ask the librarians if you get stuck or cannot
find what you want. Be kind to the books, say thanks, and you'll be welcomed
back the next time.

A final note
How "medieval" your creations look will also rely in part on the materials
you use. Writing with a Speedball pen on notebook paper is different than
writing on good quality rag paper with a dip pen, which is in turn different
from writing on vellum with a quill pen (perhaps with homemade ink made from oak
galls). Unless you are using the same materials used by the original scribes,
you cannot expect to exactly reproduce their results. Now I'm not suggesting
that everyone throw out all of their modern equipment (especially for
practice!), but if you get a chance to try out authentic medieval materials,
jump at it. (Even simply fingering real parchment or period paper is
instructive). Youıll probably learn things that will help your works with
modern materials achieve a more "medieval" feel.

Bibliography

This bibliography is a condensed version of the basic bibliography for the
Medieval Latin Palaeography Course taught at the Pontifical Institute for
Medieval Studies by Prof. Virginia Brown. The comments are my own, however.

Aris, Rutherford B. Explicatio formarum litterarum: The Unfolding of
Letterforms from the First Century to the Fifteenth Century. (St. Paul, Minn.,
1990)

Bischoff, Bernhard. Latin Palaeography: Antiquity and the Middle Ages.
(English translation). (Cambridge, 1990)

Brown, Michelle P. A Guide to Western Historical Scripts. (Toronto, 1990)

Brown, Michelle P. A Guide to Understanding Illuminated Manuscripts. (J. Paul
Getty Museum, 1994).
John, J.J. "Latin Palaeography", in Medieval Studies: An Introduction , ed.
James M. Powell, 2nd ed. (Syracuse, 1992).

Ullman, B.I. Ancient Writing and Its Influence., 2nd ed. (New York 1969,
Medieval Academy Reprints for Teaching 10, Toronto, 1980, 1989).

These books should be enough for the beginning palaeographer to get
his/her feet wet in the area. For further articles and books on specific
scripts, you may wish to consult Leonard E. Boyle, Medieval Latin Palaeography:
A Bibliographical Introduction (U. of Toronto Press, 1984)

Facsimile Collections
While many of the books in the preceding section do contain manuscript
facsimile pages, to see multiple examples in a full-size format, you should
consult one of the facsimile collections. This is the best way to get a "feel"
for the look of medieval manuscripts--how a deluxe manuscript looks in
comparison with a schoolbook; how Gothic varies from England to Italy; or to
appreciate the nuances between Corbie a-b and Laon a-z scripts, for example.
The following two are the most famous and most complete, but a good research
library should stock additional, more focused facsimile collections. These two
collections also do you the favour of transliterating the Latin text and noting
where abbreviations have been expanded.

Lowe, E.A. Codices latini antiquiores. A Palaeographical Guide to Latin
Manuscripts Prior to the Ninth Century , 11 vols. and supplement vol.
(Oxford, 1934-71) (³CLA²)

The New Palaeographical Society. Facsimiles of Ancient Manuscripts: First
Series (London 1903-30) Second Series (London, 1913-30) (covers 400
BC-1535 AD.)

Abbreviations
These are the two standard works on the subject of abbreviations in
medieval Latin texts.

Capelli, Adriano. Dizionario di abbreviature latine ed italiane, 6th ed.
(Milan, 1994) The Italian introduction to this manual has been
translated: A. Capelli, Elements of Abbreviation in Medieval Latin, trans. D.
Heimann and R. Kay, (Lawrence, KS 1982)

Lindsay, W.M. Notae latinae. An account of Abbreviations in Latin Manuscripts
of the Early Minuscule Period (c. 700-850). (Cambridge, 1915; reprint
Hildesheim, 1965)

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Copyright 1996 by Susan Carroll-Clark, 53 Thorncliffe Park Dr. #611,
Toronto, Ontario M4H 1L1 CANADA. Permission granted for
republication in SCA-related publications, provided author is credited
and receives a copy.

<the end>