Med-Lighting-art - 6/3/09 ਀ഊ"See What You're Eating: A how-to guide to Period (600 CE - 1600 CE) lighting for the feast table" by Master Bedwyr Danwyn. ਀ഊNOTE: See also the files: Workng-Tallow-art, lamps-msg, lighting-msg, Med-Lighting-lnks, torches-msg, p-petroleum-msg, firestarting-msg, Oil-Lamps-art. ਀ഊ************************************************************************ ਀一伀吀䤀䌀䔀 ⴀഊ ਀吀栀椀猀 愀爀琀椀挀氀攀 眀愀猀 猀甀戀洀椀琀琀攀搀 琀漀 洀攀 戀礀 琀栀攀 愀甀琀栀漀爀 昀漀爀 椀渀挀氀甀猀椀漀渀 椀渀 琀栀椀猀 猀攀琀 漀昀 昀椀氀攀猀Ⰰ 挀愀氀氀攀搀 匀琀攀昀愀渀✀猀 䘀氀漀爀椀氀攀最椀甀洀⸀ ഊ ਀吀栀攀猀攀 昀椀氀攀猀 愀爀攀 愀瘀愀椀氀愀戀氀攀 漀渀 琀栀攀 䤀渀琀攀爀渀攀琀 愀琀㨀 栀琀琀瀀㨀⼀⼀眀眀眀⸀昀氀漀爀椀氀攀最椀甀洀⸀漀爀最ഊ ਀䌀漀瀀礀爀椀最栀琀 琀漀 琀栀攀 挀漀渀琀攀渀琀猀 漀昀 琀栀椀猀 昀椀氀攀 爀攀洀愀椀渀猀 眀椀琀栀 琀栀攀 愀甀琀栀漀爀 漀爀 琀爀愀渀猀氀愀琀漀爀⸀ഊ ਀圀栀椀氀攀 琀栀攀 愀甀琀栀漀爀 眀椀氀氀 氀椀欀攀氀礀 最椀瘀攀 瀀攀爀洀椀猀猀椀漀渀 昀漀爀 琀栀椀猀 眀漀爀欀 琀漀 戀攀 爀攀瀀爀椀渀琀攀搀 椀渀 匀䌀䄀 琀礀瀀攀 瀀甀戀氀椀挀愀琀椀漀渀猀Ⰰ 瀀氀攀愀猀攀 挀栀攀挀欀 眀椀琀栀 琀栀攀 愀甀琀栀漀爀 昀椀爀猀琀 漀爀 挀栀攀挀欀 昀漀爀 愀渀礀 瀀攀爀洀椀猀猀椀漀渀猀 最爀愀渀琀攀搀 愀琀 琀栀攀 攀渀搀 漀昀 琀栀椀猀 昀椀氀攀⸀ഊ ਀吀栀愀渀欀 礀漀甀ⰀഊMark S. Harris...AKA:..Stefan li Rous ਀猀琀攀昀愀渀 愀琀 昀氀漀爀椀氀攀最椀甀洀⸀漀爀最ഊ************************************************************************ ਀ഊYou can find more articles by this author on this website: ਀栀琀琀瀀㨀⼀⼀眀眀眀⸀氀椀最栀琀氀椀渀欀⸀挀漀洀⼀爀栀椀愀渀渀漀渀⼀䈀攀搀眀礀爀猀─㈀　栀愀渀搀漀甀琀猀⼀䈀攀搀眀礀爀开椀渀搀攀砀⸀栀琀洀氀ഊ ਀ഊSee What You're Eating: ਀䄀 栀漀眀ⴀ琀漀 最甀椀搀攀 琀漀 倀攀爀椀漀搀 ⠀㘀　　 䌀䔀 ⴀ ㄀㘀　　 䌀䔀⤀ 氀椀最栀琀椀渀最 昀漀爀 琀栀攀 昀攀愀猀琀 琀愀戀氀攀 ഊby Master Bedwyr Danwyn ਀ഊWhere Was Such Lighting Used? ਀ഊLighting for the feast table can be referred to as spot lighting, as opposed to area lighting. Area lighting is designed to cover a large area with low level illumination (so you don't trip over the dog), whereas spotlighting is designed to put a higher level of illumination at a single place (to see your food or write a letter). We mundanes are spoiled by our excellent lighting options, and would consider medieval spot lighting to be inadequate for the task. But, as those who walk around at Pennsic at night can attest, if you allow your eyes to adjust to the lower level of light, you can see surprisingly well. Without 100 watt light bulbs ready to flick on, the human eye can do much better than many think. ਀ഊIn the Middle Ages, Summertime allowed the peasant to eat by natural light, as it lasted through the dinner hour. During the Wintertime, darkness came early but so did the fire in the hearth, to keep the home warm. Meals would have been taken near the fire, a single source for warmth, cooking and light. They would have occasion to use spot lighting elsewhere, sort of like using a flashlight to look under beds and such. For this use, the lights as described for the feast table would have been used. ਀ഊMiddle class folks would have followed the above pattern, but with a greater need for table lights. Bigger homes meant rooms away from the main fire, and less illumination. The middle class were more likely to live in towns, where people would have stayed up later to entertain, write letters or work on business ledgers, or simply prepare merchandise for the next day's sale. And, they would have been better able to not only afford spotlighting, but could easily find a merchant to provide fuel as required. ਀ഊThe wealthy people had even bigger homes and frequently entertained, sometimes throughout the night. They owned many lights, often of quality (and expense) fine enough to be recorded in their housebooks. Akin to them were the Churches, where the lights were required for the many interior rooms where sunlight would not reach, late night services, scribal work and even because certain religious ceremonies required them. So huge was the Churches' appetite for beeswax candles, they often maintained their own apiaries and still consumed large quantities of wax from the local market. ਀ഊWhen Were Such Lights Used? ਀ഊOil lamps have been used for thousands of years (one has been dated to 20,000 BC) and are certainly the easiest and oldest spotlighting known to man. Around the Mediterranean Sea and on the old Roman trading circuit, olive oil was the fuel of choice for oil lamps, due to its availability and superiority. In the colder northern regions of Europe, fish oil would be a more likely fuel for oil lamps. Inland, in the great grain growing regions pressed grain oils might be used. All of these fuels were used throughout our period. ਀ഊCandles were not as commonly used as many believe. While they were known, there is little evidence for their use much before the close of the Dark Ages. Candles could be made of beeswax or tallow, depending on ones station and purse. Candles were never common in the warmer areas, due to the low temperatures at which they soften. Beeswax and especially tallow soften at lower temperatures than the paraffin candles we are so familiar with. The main exception to this rule was the use of beeswax candles by the Church in hot areas, due to it being a religious requirement. Beeswax has a pleasant smell, is harder, and burns better than tallow, and was the candle substance of choice for the wealthy and Church. Tallow is rendered animal fat and while not as charming to use as beeswax and requiring more work to prepare, was less expensive than beeswax and therefore was the substance of choice for those who could not afford beeswax. Candles of no type appear to have been commonly used by the poor. ਀ഊPoor people most likely used cressets or rushlights, both of which date back to ancient times. Cressets are metal vessels filled with resinous pine knots, and were either hung from a chain or placed on a stand. The pine knots were burned, and it was easy to add more as required. Rushlights are pieces of rush that have been trimmed, dried and then soaked in tallow; and then burned in special holders used to simplify this procedure. It has also been noted that pieces of rope may be soaked in tallow and burned, and my experiments have proved the validity of this claim. ਀ഊHow Were Oil Lamps Used? ਀ഊOil lamps were generally suspended from above on chains, or set on tabletops. If set on tabletops, they could be either low vessels (such as a dish) or placed higher up on a stand. Lamps could be hung individually or en mass in metal frames called polycandelons. It was common for lamps to be hung or set into stands, and as candles came into use, it appears that the lamp stands were the origins for candlesticks. Indeed, many early candlesticks could accommodate either candles or lamps. ਀ഊOil lamps could be quite simple and inexpensive, or very elaborate affairs only the most wealthy could afford. They could be made of pottery, stone, metal, clay or glass. They might have but a single wick or several. Wicks might be made of dried moss, linen, hemp, cotton or even strips of old cloth. Cotton proved to make the best wicks, and replaced all others as it became common. Records warn that wool makes poor wicks, and this is true. I have tried wool to find that it mainly melts under the heat. Wicks could be floated on top of the oil, or placed in to the oil to rest on the edge of the lamp, or be supported in the oil by a metal spring or clip. I have even heard speculation that wicks might have been supported by free standing lead cones. ਀ഊHow Were Candles Used? ਀ഊCandles were made either of tallow or beeswax. Tallow is animal fat which has been boiled and strained. As a great number of large animals were slaughtered at the onset of winter, a lot of fat became available for use, just in time for all of the dark evenings. Beeswax was of course produced by bees in warm weather, and merely had to be collected, cleaned of honey and bee bits, and melted. Candles were produced by the following four methods: 1) dipping, 2) pouring, 3) rolling, and 4) casting. ਀ഊl) Dipped candies are made by first taking a bit of wick and soaking it in molten beeswax or tallow. It is then straightened while it cools. To simplify this, I like to affix a lead fishing weight to the bottom of the wick. This piece of wick is then dipped into a tall vessel, filled mainly with hot water on top of which is a layer of molten beeswax or tallow, about 2 - 4 inches deep. The wax should be on the cool side of molten, to decrease the chances of it being hot enough to keep from sticking to the wick. After a dip in the molten wax, the wick is then dipped into a tall vessel filled with cool water. This is to lower the temperature of the growing candle, to ensure that the hot wax will stick to it and make the candle grow. This process is continued until the candle reaches the desired diameter. It is easy to make good candles this way, but the process can become fatiguing if many candles are to be made. ਀ഊ2) Poured candles are made by first tying a wick to some form of support. Molten beeswax or tallow is then poured down the wick. As it flows down it will cool and the candle will be built up. A pan is placed under the wick to catch the drippings, which are remelted from time to time. This process is continued until the desired size is reached. If only a few candles are desired, this can take quite a while. Since the candle is not dipped in water to cool it down, time has to be spent between each pouring to allow it to cool on its own. Otherwise, it will be too hot and the next pour simply runs off. In large scale production, pouring makes sense since a great many wicks would be tied to a horizontal wheel. After each pouring, the wheel is advanced one wick, and by the time any given wick has revolved back for its next pour, it will have cooled down on its own. Very long candles can be poured by this method, and candles several feet long do appear in period illustrations. ਀ഊ3) Rolled candles are made by first pouring molten beeswax onto a pan of hot water, and allowing to cool. Once cool, the sheet of wax on top of the water is removed and dried. It can be cut to size with a knife, and reheated under very hot tap water until it becomes pliable. Then it is rolled around a piece of pre-stiffened wick and formed into a candle. This method is fairly fast and easy, bit will not work with tallow, which is too soft. ਀ഊ4) Cast candles are made by obtaining a mold and affixing a wick in place, inside. Then, molten beeswax or tallow is poured into the mold. As the beeswax or tallow cools, it will shrink into the mold, and needs to be topped off a few times. Or, just cast your candle longer than required, and trim off the shrunken part. Once the candle is cold, it will want to stick to the inside of the mold. To release it, run your mold under very hot tap water until it is too hot to touch. Your candle will be ready to slide out. If will be hot and slightly soft, so be prepared to catch it with a clean rag soaked in cold water. Casting candles gives the best results, but over the counter molds are expensive. I have discovered that copper pipes and end caps from the plumbing store are quite cheap and actually work even easier than commercial molds, which do not have removable end caps. Candle molds themselves begin to appear in the 1300's, but do not become common until the Renaissance. ਀ഊHow Were Wicks Made? ਀ഊWicks were made mainly of linen or hemp, and were replaced by cotton as it became more available. Throughout our period wicks were given a uniform twist, which required frequent clipping by snuffers (those cone things which put the candle out are actually called extinguishers). Wicks had to be matched to the candle in width and length to burn cleanly; and while the width would remain constant the length would grow as the candle burned down. If the wick wasn't occasionally shortened, it would lengthen until the flame cooled and smoked and sputtered. I suspect that the frequent attention demanded by candles until the invention of the braided wick (post period) was a primary reason why candles were never as popular as oil lamps, which are almost entirely maintenance free. ਀ഊWhat About Candlesticks? ਀ഊSince early candles were rarely cast, their diameters would vary, making the use of socketed candlesticks difficult. Early candlesticks were generally of the pricket style, which is to say that the candle was pushed down over a sharp spike. The diameter of the candle would then be of no consequence, and both tallow and beeswax are softer than modern paraffin candles that do not do well with prickets. These candlesticks had drip trays on the bottom, both to protect the surface that the candlestick was on, as well as to simply the collection of the dripped wax which would be reused. The socketed candlesticks had drip trays, too; and in general, as time progressed these trays moved higher up the candlesticks. ਀ഊMoving into the Renaissance, candles became very popular. Candlesticks became quite grand and expensive, with floor models holding a score or more candles. Candlesticks copied the form of the polycandelons, and turned into what we think of as chandeliers, sometimes of massive size, drip trays and all. ਀ഊIn closing, we take a peek at an interesting sidenote, that of the taper. This was a long piece of cord or wick, which was coated with beeswax and rolled into a ball. It was slowly unrolled as it burned, and could be carried around and used to light all of the candles on the grand candlestands. Perhaps on occasion they might have even been the sole source of light for a bachelor eating his meal alone in the middle of the night, the final chapter o "see what you're eating". ਀ഊ ਀䰀椀最栀琀椀渀最 䈀椀戀氀椀漀最爀愀瀀栀礀ഊ ਀开开开开⠀㈀　　　⤀ 匀漀琀栀攀戀礀✀猀 䄀渀琀椀焀甀椀琀椀攀猀 愀渀搀 䤀猀氀愀洀椀挀 圀漀爀欀猀 漀昀 䄀爀琀Ⰰ 圀攀搀渀攀猀搀愀礀 䨀甀渀攀 ㄀㐀Ⰰ ㈀　　　⸀ 匀愀氀攀 䌀愀琀愀氀漀最 ⴀ䄀瘀椀最渀漀渀 㜀㐀㠀㤀⸀ 倀最猀 ㄀㐀㈀ⴀ㄀㐀㌀ഊ ਀开开开开⠀㄀㤀㜀㤀⤀ 䠀椀猀琀漀爀椀挀 䜀氀愀猀猀 昀爀漀洀 挀漀氀氀攀挀琀椀漀渀猀 椀渀 一漀爀琀栀 圀攀猀琀 䔀渀最氀愀渀搀⸀ 䴀攀爀猀攀礀猀椀搀攀 䌀漀甀渀琀礀 䴀甀猀攀甀洀猀Ⰰ 䴀攀爀猀攀礀猀椀搀攀 䌀漀甀渀琀礀 䌀漀甀渀挀椀氀Ⰰ 匀琀 䠀攀氀攀渀猀Ⰰ 唀䬀⸀ 倀最猀 㜀Ⰰ ㈀㤀ഊ ਀䌀愀洀瀀戀攀氀氀 匀䐀 ⠀㄀㤀㤀㜀⤀ 吀栀攀 䴀愀氀挀漀瘀攀 䌀漀氀氀攀挀琀椀漀渀⸀ 唀渀椀瘀攀爀猀椀琀礀 漀昀 吀漀爀漀渀琀漀 倀爀攀猀猀Ⰰ 吀漀爀漀渀琀漀⸀ 倀最猀 㐀㌀ⴀ㔀㤀ഊ ਀䌀愀猀瀀愀氀氀 䨀 ⠀㄀㤀㤀㌀⤀ 䘀椀爀攀 ☀ 䰀椀最栀琀 椀渀 琀栀攀 栀漀洀攀 瀀爀攀ⴀ㄀㠀㈀　⸀ 䄀渀琀椀焀甀攀 䌀漀氀氀攀挀琀漀爀✀猀 䌀氀甀戀Ⰰ 圀漀漀搀戀爀椀搀最攀 唀䬀⸀ഊ ਀䌀漀渀椀猀戀攀攀Ⰰ 倀 ⠀㄀㤀㤀㘀⤀ 䜀攀漀爀最攀猀 搀攀 䰀愀 吀漀甀爀 愀渀搀 栀椀猀 圀漀爀氀搀⸀ 夀愀氀攀 唀渀椀瘀攀爀猀椀琀礀 倀爀攀猀猀Ⰰ 一攀眀 䠀愀瘀攀渀⸀ 倀愀最攀 ㄀㄀　ഊ ਀䔀最愀渀 䜀 ⠀㄀㤀㤀㠀⤀ 吀栀攀 䴀攀搀椀攀瘀愀氀 䠀漀甀猀攀栀漀氀搀Ⰰ 䴀攀搀椀攀瘀愀氀 䘀椀渀搀猀 昀爀漀洀 䔀砀挀愀瘀愀琀椀漀渀猀 椀渀 䰀漀渀搀漀渀⸀ 䠀䴀匀伀Ⰰ 匀琀⸀ 䌀爀椀猀瀀椀渀猀 唀䬀⸀ 倀最猀 ㄀㈀㘀ⴀ㄀㔀㄀ഊ ਀䔀瘀攀氀攀椀最栀 䐀䘀 ⠀㄀㤀㤀㔀⤀ 䌀愀渀搀氀攀 䰀椀最栀琀椀渀最⸀ 匀栀椀爀攀 倀甀戀氀椀挀愀琀椀漀渀猀 䰀琀搀Ⰰ 倀爀椀渀挀攀猀 刀椀猀戀漀爀漀甀最栀 唀䬀⸀ഊ ਀䘀椀琀稀栀甀最栀 圀圀Ⰰ 圀愀爀搀 䔀 ⠀㈀　　　⤀ 嘀椀欀椀渀最猀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 一漀爀琀栀 䄀琀氀愀渀琀椀挀 匀愀最愀⸀ 匀洀椀琀栀猀漀渀椀愀渀 䤀渀猀琀椀琀甀琀椀漀渀 倀爀攀猀猀Ⰰ 圀愀猀栀椀渀最琀漀渀⸀ 倀最 㜀㘀Ⰰ ㈀㤀㈀ⴀ㈀㤀㌀Ⰰ 㐀㄀㤀ഊ ਀䠀愀渀 嘀 ⠀㄀㤀㜀㔀⤀ 吀栀攀 漀爀椀最椀渀 愀渀搀 猀琀礀氀攀 漀昀 洀攀搀椀攀瘀愀氀 最氀愀猀猀 昀漀甀渀搀 椀渀 琀栀攀 䌀攀渀琀爀愀氀 䈀愀氀欀愀渀猀⸀ 䨀漀甀爀渀愀氀 漀昀 䜀氀愀猀猀 匀琀甀搀椀攀猀 ㄀㜀㨀 ㄀㄀㐀ⴀ㄀㈀㘀ഊ ਀䠀攀樀搀漀瘀愀 䐀⸀ 吀礀瀀攀猀 漀昀 洀攀搀椀攀瘀愀氀 最氀愀猀猀 瘀攀猀猀攀氀猀 椀渀 䈀漀栀攀洀椀愀⸀ 䨀漀甀爀渀愀氀 漀昀 䜀氀愀猀猀 匀琀甀搀椀攀猀 ㄀㜀㨀 ㄀㐀㈀ⴀ㄀㔀　ഊ ਀䠀漀甀最栀Ⰰ 圀 ⠀㄀㤀㈀㠀⤀ 䌀漀氀氀攀挀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 䠀攀愀琀椀渀最 愀渀搀 䰀椀最栀琀椀渀最 唀琀攀渀猀椀氀猀 椀渀 琀栀攀 唀渀椀琀攀搀 匀琀愀琀攀猀 一愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 䴀甀猀攀甀洀⸀ 唀渀椀琀攀搀 匀琀愀琀攀猀 䜀漀瘀攀爀渀洀攀渀琀 倀爀椀渀琀椀渀最 伀昀昀椀挀攀Ⰰ 圀愀猀栀椀渀最琀漀渀 䐀䌀ഊ ਀䤀猀爀愀攀氀椀 夀 ⠀㄀㤀㤀㠀⤀ 吀栀攀 圀漀渀搀攀爀猀 漀昀 䄀渀挀椀攀渀琀 䜀氀愀猀猀 愀琀 琀栀攀 䤀猀爀愀攀氀 䴀甀猀攀甀洀Ⰰ 䨀攀爀甀猀愀氀攀洀⸀ 䤀猀爀愀攀氀 䴀甀猀攀甀洀Ⰰ 䨀攀爀甀猀愀氀攀洀⸀ 倀最猀 㔀　ⴀ㔀㄀ഊ ਀䬀漀挀栀Ⰰ 䠀圀 ⠀㄀㤀㜀㠀⤀ 䴀攀搀椀攀瘀愀氀 圀愀爀昀愀爀攀⸀ 䈀椀猀漀渀 䈀漀漀欀猀 䰀椀洀椀琀攀搀Ⰰ 䰀漀渀搀漀渀⸀ 倀最猀 㜀㈀Ⰰ ㄀㄀㠀ഊ ਀䴀愀琀栀攀猀漀渀 匀䈀 ⠀㄀㤀㠀　⤀ 䄀渀挀椀攀渀琀 䜀氀愀猀猀 椀渀 琀栀攀 夀愀氀攀 唀渀椀瘀攀爀猀椀琀礀 䄀爀琀 䜀愀氀氀攀爀礀⸀ 夀愀氀攀 唀渀椀瘀攀爀猀椀琀礀 䄀爀琀 䜀愀氀氀攀爀礀Ⰰ 䴀攀爀椀搀攀渀Ⰰ 䌀漀渀渀⸀ 倀最猀 㤀㠀ⴀ㤀㤀Ⰰ ㄀㄀㌀ഊ ਀一攀眀戀礀 䴀匀 ⠀㈀　　　⤀ 䜀氀愀猀猀 漀昀 昀漀甀爀 洀椀氀氀攀渀渀椀愀⸀ 䄀猀栀洀漀氀攀愀渀 䴀甀猀攀甀洀Ⰰ 伀砀昀漀爀搀⸀ 倀最猀 㐀　ⴀ㐀㄀ഊ ਀匀愀氀瘀椀渀椀 刀 ⠀㄀㤀㘀㔀⤀ 䜀椀漀琀琀漀 䜀䈀 䄀昀昀爀攀猀挀栀椀 搀椀 䄀猀猀椀猀椀Ⰰ 䘀漀爀洀愀 䔀 䌀漀氀漀爀攀 㐀⸀ 匀愀搀攀愀⼀匀愀渀猀漀渀椀 䔀搀椀琀漀爀椀Ⰰ 䘀椀爀攀渀稀愀Ⰰ 䤀琀愀氀礀⸀ 倀最猀 㜀ⴀ㠀Ⰰ ㈀㘀ഊ ਀匀愀瘀愀最攀 䜀 ⠀㄀㤀㘀㔀⤀ 䜀氀愀猀猀⸀ 䜀⸀倀⸀ 倀甀琀渀愀洀✀猀 匀漀渀猀Ⰰ 一攀眀 夀漀爀欀⸀ 倀最猀 ㌀　ⴀ㌀㄀Ⰰ 㐀㔀Ⰰ 㘀　ⴀ㘀㄀ 匀栀攀爀洀愀渀 䐀刀 ⠀㄀㤀㤀㌀⤀ 䐀漀洀攀猀琀椀挀 䰀椀最栀琀椀渀最Ⰰ 䌀愀渀搀氀攀猀Ⰰ 䰀愀洀瀀猀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 吀漀爀挀栀攀猀 椀渀 䠀椀猀琀漀爀礀Ⰰ 䌀漀洀瀀氀攀愀琀 䄀渀愀挀栀爀漀渀椀猀琀 ⌀㘀㠀⸀ 匀漀挀椀攀琀礀 漀昀 䌀爀攀愀琀椀瘀攀 䄀渀愀挀栀爀漀渀椀猀洀Ⰰ 䴀椀氀瀀椀琀愀猀Ⰰ 䌀䄀⸀ഊ ਀吀愀椀氀 䠀 ⠀攀搀⤀ ⠀㄀㤀㤀㤀⤀ 䘀椀瘀攀 吀栀漀甀猀愀渀搀 夀攀愀爀猀 漀昀 䜀氀愀猀猀⸀ 䈀爀椀琀椀猀栀 䴀甀猀攀甀洀 倀爀攀猀猀Ⰰ 䰀漀渀搀漀渀⸀ 倀最猀 ㄀　　ⴀ㄀　㄀Ⰰ ㄀㈀㈀ⴀ㄀㈀㌀Ⰰ ㄀㌀㐀ⴀ㄀㌀㔀ഊ ਀吀栀眀椀渀最 䰀 ⠀㄀㤀㔀㠀⤀ 䘀氀椀挀欀攀爀椀渀最 䘀氀愀洀攀猀Ⰰ 䄀 䠀椀猀琀漀爀礀 漀昀 䐀漀洀攀猀琀椀挀 䰀椀最栀琀椀渀最 琀栀爀漀甀最栀 琀栀攀 䄀最攀猀⸀ 䌀栀愀爀氀攀猀 䔀Ⰰ 吀甀琀琀氀攀 䌀漀 昀漀爀 琀栀攀 刀甀猀栀氀椀最栀琀 䌀氀甀戀Ⰰ 刀甀琀氀愀渀搀Ⰰ 嘀攀爀洀漀渀琀ഊ ਀夀漀甀渀最 匀䠀 ⠀㄀㤀㤀㌀⤀ 䄀 瀀爀攀瘀椀攀眀 漀昀 猀攀瘀攀渀琀栀ⴀ挀攀渀琀甀爀礀 最氀愀猀猀 昀爀漀洀 琀栀攀 䬀漀甀爀椀漀渀 䈀愀猀椀氀椀挀愀Ⰰ 䌀礀瀀爀甀猀⸀ 䨀漀甀爀渀愀氀 漀昀 䜀氀愀猀猀 匀琀甀搀椀攀猀 ㌀㔀㨀 ㌀㤀ⴀ㐀㜀ഊ ਀圀攀戀猀琀攀爀 䰀Ⰰ 䈀爀漀眀渀 䴀 ⠀攀搀猀⤀ ⠀㄀㤀㤀㜀⤀ 吀栀攀 吀爀愀渀猀昀漀爀洀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 琀栀攀 刀漀洀愀渀 圀漀爀氀搀 䄀䐀 㐀　　ⴀ㤀　　⸀ 䈀爀椀琀椀猀栀 䴀甀猀攀甀洀 倀爀攀猀猀Ⰰ 䰀漀渀搀漀渀⸀ 倀最猀 ㄀㐀Ⰰ ㄀㌀㘀Ⰰ ㄀㘀㤀ഊ ਀圀栀椀琀攀栀漀甀猀攀 䐀 ⠀㄀㤀㠀㘀⤀ 䄀渀 䄀渀最氀漀ⴀ匀愀砀漀渀 挀漀渀攀 䈀攀愀欀攀爀 昀爀漀洀 䘀愀瘀攀爀猀栀愀洀⸀ 䨀漀甀爀渀愀氀 漀昀 䜀氀愀猀猀 匀琀甀搀椀攀猀 ㄀㜀㨀 ㄀㈀　ⴀ㄀㈀㈀ഊ------ ਀䌀漀瀀礀爀椀最栀琀 ㈀　　㠀 戀礀 吀栀攀漀搀漀爀攀 䰀愀稀挀愀渀漀⸀ 㰀琀爀氀㌀ 愀琀 挀漀爀渀攀氀氀⸀攀搀甀㸀⸀ 倀攀爀洀椀猀猀椀漀渀 椀猀 最爀愀渀琀攀搀 昀漀爀 爀攀瀀甀戀氀椀挀愀琀椀漀渀 椀渀 匀䌀䄀ⴀ爀攀氀愀琀攀搀 瀀甀戀氀椀挀愀琀椀漀渀猀Ⰰ 瀀爀漀瘀椀搀攀搀 琀栀攀 愀甀琀栀漀爀 椀猀 挀爀攀搀椀琀攀搀⸀  䄀搀搀爀攀猀猀攀猀 挀栀愀渀最攀Ⰰ 戀甀琀 愀 爀攀愀猀漀渀愀戀氀攀 愀琀琀攀洀瀀琀 猀栀漀甀氀搀 戀攀 洀愀搀攀 琀漀 攀渀猀甀爀攀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀 愀甀琀栀漀爀 椀猀 渀漀琀椀昀椀攀搀 漀昀 琀栀攀 瀀甀戀氀椀挀愀琀椀漀渀 愀渀搀 椀昀 瀀漀猀猀椀戀氀攀 爀攀挀攀椀瘀攀猀 愀 挀漀瀀礀⸀ഊ ਀䤀昀 琀栀椀猀 愀爀琀椀挀氀攀 椀猀 爀攀瀀爀椀渀琀攀搀 椀渀 愀 瀀甀戀氀椀挀愀琀椀漀渀Ⰰ 䤀 眀漀甀氀搀 愀瀀瀀爀攀挀椀愀琀攀 愀 渀漀琀椀挀攀 椀渀 琀栀攀 瀀甀戀氀椀挀愀琀椀漀渀 琀栀愀琀 礀漀甀 昀漀甀渀搀 琀栀椀猀 愀爀琀椀挀氀攀 椀渀 琀栀攀 䘀氀漀爀椀氀攀最椀甀洀⸀ 䤀 眀漀甀氀搀 愀氀猀漀 愀瀀瀀爀攀挀椀愀琀攀 愀渀 攀洀愀椀氀 琀漀 洀礀猀攀氀昀Ⰰ 猀漀 琀栀愀琀 䤀 挀愀渀 琀爀愀挀欀 眀栀椀挀栀 愀爀琀椀挀氀攀猀 愀爀攀 戀攀椀渀最 爀攀瀀爀椀渀琀攀搀⸀ 吀栀愀渀欀猀⸀ ⴀ匀琀攀昀愀渀⸀ഊ ਀㰀琀栀攀 攀渀搀㸀ഊEdited by Mark S. 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