Stirrups-Hist-art - 4/8/08 ਀ഊ"A Short History Of Equestrian Stirrups" by The Honorable Lady Maria de Andalusia. ਀ഊNOTE: See also the files: horses-msg, horses-lnks, horses-bib, Horse-n-t-MA-art, horse-racing-msg, saddles-msg, warhorse-size-art. ਀ഊ************************************************************************ ਀一伀吀䤀䌀䔀 ⴀഊ ਀吀栀椀猀 愀爀琀椀挀氀攀 眀愀猀 猀甀戀洀椀琀琀攀搀 琀漀 洀攀 戀礀 琀栀攀 愀甀琀栀漀爀 昀漀爀 椀渀挀氀甀猀椀漀渀 椀渀 琀栀椀猀 猀攀琀 漀昀 昀椀氀攀猀Ⰰ 挀愀氀氀攀搀 匀琀攀昀愀渀✀猀 䘀氀漀爀椀氀攀最椀甀洀⸀ ഊ ਀吀栀攀猀攀 昀椀氀攀猀 愀爀攀 愀瘀愀椀氀愀戀氀攀 漀渀 琀栀攀 䤀渀琀攀爀渀攀琀 愀琀㨀 栀琀琀瀀㨀⼀⼀眀眀眀⸀昀氀漀爀椀氀攀最椀甀洀⸀漀爀最ഊ ਀䌀漀瀀礀爀椀最栀琀 琀漀 琀栀攀 挀漀渀琀攀渀琀猀 漀昀 琀栀椀猀 昀椀氀攀 爀攀洀愀椀渀猀 眀椀琀栀 琀栀攀 愀甀琀栀漀爀 漀爀 琀爀愀渀猀氀愀琀漀爀⸀ഊ ਀圀栀椀氀攀 琀栀攀 愀甀琀栀漀爀 眀椀氀氀 氀椀欀攀氀礀 最椀瘀攀 瀀攀爀洀椀猀猀椀漀渀 昀漀爀 琀栀椀猀 眀漀爀欀 琀漀 戀攀 爀攀瀀爀椀渀琀攀搀 椀渀 匀䌀䄀 琀礀瀀攀 瀀甀戀氀椀挀愀琀椀漀渀猀Ⰰ 瀀氀攀愀猀攀 挀栀攀挀欀 眀椀琀栀 琀栀攀 愀甀琀栀漀爀 昀椀爀猀琀 漀爀 挀栀攀挀欀 昀漀爀 愀渀礀 瀀攀爀洀椀猀猀椀漀渀猀 最爀愀渀琀攀搀 愀琀 琀栀攀 攀渀搀 漀昀 琀栀椀猀 昀椀氀攀⸀ഊ ਀吀栀愀渀欀 礀漀甀ⰀഊMark S. Harris...AKA:..Stefan li Rous ਀猀琀攀昀愀渀 愀琀 昀氀漀爀椀氀攀最椀甀洀⸀漀爀最ഊ************************************************************************ ਀ഊA Short History Of ਀䔀焀甀攀猀琀爀椀愀渀 匀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀ഊ ਀ ഊ ਀戀礀 吀栀攀 䠀漀渀漀爀愀戀氀攀 䰀愀搀礀 䴀愀爀椀愀 搀攀 䄀渀搀愀氀甀猀椀愀ഊ ਀吀愀戀氀攀 漀昀 䌀漀渀琀攀渀琀猀ഊ ਀䤀渀琀爀漀搀甀挀琀椀漀渀ഊWhat is a Stirrup? ਀倀爀攀ⴀ匀琀椀爀爀甀瀀ഊThe First Stirrup, a Toe Stirrup? ਀䘀椀爀猀琀 䌀漀洀瀀氀攀琀攀 匀琀椀爀爀甀瀀ഊMaterials ਀匀栀愀瀀攀猀 愀渀搀 匀琀礀氀攀ഊStirrup Controversy ਀䌀漀渀挀氀甀猀椀漀渀ഊDocumentation ਀ഊ ਀䤀昀 礀漀甀 猀瀀攀愀欀 琀栀攀 琀爀甀琀栀Ⰰ 栀愀瘀攀 愀 昀漀漀琀 椀渀 琀栀攀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀⸀ഊTurkish proverb ਀ഊ ਀䤀渀琀爀漀搀甀挀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 匀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀ഊ ਀匀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀 栀愀瘀攀 戀攀攀渀 愀渀 椀洀瀀漀爀琀愀渀琀 挀漀洀瀀漀渀攀渀琀 漀昀 攀焀甀攀猀琀爀椀愀渀 猀愀搀搀氀攀猀 昀漀爀 洀漀爀攀 琀栀愀渀 ㄀㜀　　 礀攀愀爀猀⸀  ഊ ਠ∀ 䈀甀琀 眀栀攀爀攀 搀椀搀 椀琀 愀氀氀 猀琀愀爀琀㼀  ഊ ਠ∀ 圀攀爀攀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀 昀椀琀琀攀搀 漀渀琀漀 琀栀攀 瘀攀爀礀 昀椀爀猀琀 猀愀搀搀氀攀㼀  ഊ ਠ∀ 圀栀愀琀 瀀攀漀瀀氀攀 挀爀攀愀琀攀搀 愀渀搀 戀攀渀攀昀椀琀攀搀 昀爀漀洀 猀甀挀栀 愀渀 椀渀瘀攀渀琀椀漀渀㼀ഊ ਀圀栀愀琀 䤀猀 愀 匀琀椀爀爀甀瀀㼀ഊ ਀吀栀攀 眀漀爀搀 ∀猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀∀ 栀愀猀 椀琀猀 爀漀漀琀猀 椀渀 伀氀搀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀Ⰰ 䴀椀搀搀氀攀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 琀栀攀 伀氀搀 匀愀砀漀渀 眀漀爀搀Ⰰ ∀猀琀椀爀漀瀀攀Ⰰ∀ 洀攀愀渀椀渀最 琀漀 挀氀椀洀戀 漀爀 洀漀甀渀琀⸀  吀栀攀 䄀渀最氀漀ⴀ匀愀砀漀渀 眀漀爀搀 昀爀漀洀 眀栀椀挀栀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀 眀愀猀 搀攀瘀攀氀漀瀀攀搀 眀椀琀栀 猀琀椀最爀愀瀀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 椀昀 琀栀椀猀 眀攀爀攀 琀漀 戀攀 氀椀琀攀爀愀氀氀礀 琀爀愀渀猀氀愀琀攀搀 椀渀琀漀 洀漀搀攀爀渀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀Ⰰ 椀琀 眀漀甀氀搀 戀攀挀漀洀攀 ∀猀琀礀ⴀ爀漀瀀攀∀ 漀爀 ∀挀氀椀洀戀椀渀最ⴀ爀漀瀀攀⸀∀  吀栀攀 䄀渀最氀漀ⴀ匀愀砀漀渀 眀漀爀搀 椀猀 挀漀洀瀀漀猀攀搀 漀昀 琀栀攀 爀漀漀琀 猀琀椀最Ⰰ 昀爀漀洀 猀琀椀最愀渀 ⠀琀漀 挀氀椀洀戀⤀Ⰰ 瀀氀甀猀 爀愀瀀 ⠀爀漀瀀攀⤀⸀ഊ ਀吀栀攀 昀椀爀猀琀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀 甀猀攀搀 眀攀爀攀 琀栀漀甀最栀琀 琀漀 戀攀 洀愀搀攀 漀昀 猀栀漀爀琀 氀攀渀最琀栀猀 漀昀 爀漀瀀攀 琀栀爀漀眀渀 漀瘀攀爀 琀栀攀 戀愀挀欀 漀昀 琀栀攀 栀漀爀猀攀 愀渀搀 栀愀瘀椀渀最 氀漀漀瀀猀 琀椀攀搀 椀渀 攀椀琀栀攀爀 攀渀搀⸀  圀椀琀栀 氀攀愀琀栀攀爀Ⰰ 眀漀漀搀 愀渀搀 洀攀琀愀氀 挀漀洀椀渀最 愀氀漀渀最 猀攀瘀攀爀愀氀 栀甀渀搀爀攀搀 礀攀愀爀猀 氀愀琀攀爀⸀    ഊ ਀倀爀攀ⴀ匀琀椀爀爀甀瀀ഊ ਀䤀 猀琀愀爀琀攀搀 洀礀 猀攀愀爀挀栀 昀漀爀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀 眀椀琀栀 琀爀礀椀渀最 琀漀 氀漀挀愀琀攀 琀栀攀 攀愀爀氀椀攀猀琀 攀瘀椀搀攀渀挀攀 愀瘀愀椀氀愀戀氀攀 漀昀 洀愀渀 愀猀琀爀椀搀攀 栀椀猀 栀漀爀猀攀⸀  䤀琀 眀漀甀氀搀 栀愀瘀攀 琀漀 戀攀 愀 瀀攀爀洀愀渀攀渀琀 爀攀挀漀爀搀 琀漀 眀椀琀栀猀琀愀渀搀 琀栀攀 琀栀漀甀猀愀渀搀猀 漀昀 礀攀愀爀猀 猀椀渀挀攀 洀愀渀 搀漀洀攀猀琀椀挀愀琀攀搀 栀漀爀猀攀猀 愀渀搀 琀栀攀 瀀爀攀猀攀渀琀⸀  匀漀 䤀 猀琀愀爀琀攀搀 爀攀猀攀愀爀挀栀椀渀最 琀栀攀 瀀攀漀瀀氀攀 眀椀琀栀 琀栀攀 漀氀搀攀猀琀 爀攀挀漀爀搀攀搀 栀椀猀琀漀爀礀 漀渀 攀愀爀琀栀⸀  圀栀椀挀栀 戀爀漀甀最栀琀 洀礀 猀攀愀爀挀栀 琀漀 䔀最礀瀀琀 愀渀搀 琀栀攀椀爀 琀漀洀戀猀⸀  ഊ ਀吀漀 洀礀 搀攀氀椀最栀琀Ⰰ 琀漀 搀愀琀攀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 攀愀爀氀椀攀猀琀 爀攀挀漀爀搀 漀昀 愀 栀漀爀猀攀 戀攀椀渀最 爀椀搀搀攀渀 眀愀猀 昀漀甀渀搀 椀渀 愀 琀漀洀戀 椀渀 䔀最礀瀀琀Ⰰ 搀愀琀攀搀 ㄀㘀　　 䈀䌀⸀  䘀爀漀洀 琀栀椀猀 眀攀 挀愀渀 挀愀氀挀甀氀愀琀攀 栀漀爀猀攀猀 栀愀瘀攀 戀攀攀渀 爀椀搀搀攀渀 昀漀爀 漀瘀攀爀 ㌀㔀　　 礀攀愀爀猀⸀  ഊ ਀匀漀 䤀 猀琀愀爀琀攀搀 洀礀 猀攀愀爀挀栀 昀漀爀眀愀爀搀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀 栀椀猀琀漀爀礀 氀漀漀欀椀渀最 昀漀爀 猀椀最渀猀 漀昀 琀栀攀 昀椀爀猀琀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀠☀ഊ ਀䤀 昀漀甀渀搀 愀 眀愀氀氀 挀愀爀瘀椀渀最 昀爀漀洀 䄀戀甀ⴀ匀椀洀戀攀氀Ⰰ 琀眀漀 琀攀洀瀀氀攀猀 渀攀愀爀 琀栀攀 䔀最礀瀀琀 愀渀搀 匀甀搀愀渀 戀漀爀搀攀爀 戀甀椀氀琀 戀礀 琀栀攀 䔀最礀瀀琀椀愀渀 倀栀愀爀愀漀栀Ⰰ 刀愀洀猀攀猀 䤀䤀 ⠀㄀㌀　㈀ ⴀ ㄀㈀㄀㌀ 䈀䌀⤀⸀  䄀洀攀氀椀愀 䄀渀渀 䈀氀愀渀昀漀爀搀 䔀搀眀愀爀搀猀 ⠀㄀㠀㌀㄀ⴀ㄀㠀㤀㈀⤀Ⰰ 愀渀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 䄀甀琀栀漀爀 愀渀搀 䔀最礀瀀琀漀氀漀最椀猀琀 戀攀猀琀 搀攀猀挀爀椀戀攀猀 琀栀攀 眀愀氀氀 挀愀爀瘀椀渀最 椀渀 愀 瘀漀氀甀洀攀 昀爀漀洀 栀攀爀 氀攀挀琀甀爀攀猀 瀀爀椀渀琀攀搀 椀渀 ㄀㠀㤀㄀Ⰰ 琀椀琀氀攀搀Ⰰ ∀倀栀愀爀愀漀栀猀Ⰰ 䘀攀氀氀愀栀猀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 䔀砀瀀氀漀爀攀爀猀⸀∀  嬀㄀崀ഊ ਀刀愀洀攀猀攀猀 䜀爀攀愀琀 䠀漀爀猀攀猀ഊ ਀吀栀攀 䈀愀琀琀氀攀 ⴀ 戀礀 䄀洀攀氀椀愀 䈀⸀ 䔀搀眀愀爀搀猀ഊ ਀ഊ ਀ഊ ਀吀䠀䔀 䈀䄀吀吀䰀䔀 伀䘀 䬀䄀䐀䔀匀䠀ഊFrom the great Temple of Abu-Simbel. ਀吀栀椀猀 猀挀甀氀瀀琀攀搀 琀愀戀氀攀愀甀 椀猀 搀椀瘀椀搀攀搀 栀漀爀椀稀漀渀琀愀氀氀礀 戀礀 琀栀攀 爀椀瘀攀爀 伀爀漀渀琀攀猀Ⰰ 爀攀瀀爀攀猀攀渀琀攀搀 戀礀 稀椀最稀愀最 氀椀渀攀猀⸀ഊThe fortified city of Kadesh occupies a projecting tongue of land, almost surrounded by the great bend of the river. To the right, where there is apparently a ford, some Egyptian chariots are dashing across in pursuit of a Khetan chariot, in which are seen three warriors. ਀吀栀攀 䔀最礀瀀琀椀愀渀 挀栀愀爀椀漀琀猀 愀爀攀 搀椀猀琀椀渀最甀椀猀栀攀搀 昀爀漀洀 琀栀漀猀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 䬀栀攀琀愀 戀礀 挀漀渀琀愀椀渀椀渀最 漀渀氀礀 琀眀漀⸀ഊ ਀䤀渀 琀栀攀 琀漀瀀 爀攀最椀猀琀攀爀Ⰰ 琀漀 爀椀最栀琀Ⰰ 愀渀 愀椀搀攀ⴀ搀攀ⴀ挀愀洀瀀 漀渀 栀漀爀猀攀戀愀挀欀 最愀氀氀漀瀀猀 漀昀昀 眀椀琀栀 漀爀搀攀爀猀 昀漀爀 琀栀攀 琀愀爀搀礀 爀攀愀爀ⴀ最甀愀爀搀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 眀攀 猀攀攀 愀 栀漀爀猀攀 爀甀渀渀椀渀最 愀眀愀礀 眀椀琀栀 愀渀 攀洀瀀琀礀 挀栀愀爀椀漀琀⸀ഊTo the left Rameses (depicted of colossal size) pursues the flying foe to the water's edge. Some lie trampled under his chariot-wheels, and some are drowning in the river. ਀䄀 搀爀漀眀渀椀渀最 挀栀椀攀昀 椀猀 搀爀愀最最攀搀 琀漀 猀栀漀爀攀 戀礀 愀 猀漀氀搀椀攀爀 漀昀 琀栀攀 最愀爀爀椀猀漀渀⸀ഊ ਀䄀氀愀猀 渀漀 爀攀挀漀最渀椀稀愀戀氀攀 猀椀最渀猀 漀昀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀⸀ 䄀⸀䐀⸀䠀⸀ 䈀椀瘀愀爀 嬀㈀崀 眀爀漀琀攀 愀渀 愀爀琀椀挀氀攀Ⰰ 吀栀攀 匀琀椀爀爀甀瀀 愀渀搀 䤀琀猀 伀爀椀最椀渀猀Ⰰ 挀椀琀椀渀最 琀栀攀 搀愀渀最攀爀 椀渀瘀漀氀瘀攀搀 椀渀 洀漀甀渀琀椀渀最 愀 栀漀爀猀攀 眀栀椀氀攀 挀愀爀爀礀椀渀最 眀攀愀瀀漀渀猀⸀  䠀攀 甀猀攀搀 愀猀 愀渀 攀砀愀洀瀀氀攠☀ 䌀愀洀戀礀猀攀猀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 䬀椀渀最 漀昀 倀攀爀猀椀愀 椀渀 㔀㈀㈀ 䈀䌀⸀  䌀愀洀戀礀猀攀猀 猀琀愀戀戀攀搀 栀椀洀猀攀氀昀 昀愀琀愀氀氀礀 眀椀琀栀 栀椀猀 猀眀漀爀搀 眀栀椀氀攀 氀攀愀瀀椀渀最 漀渀琀漀 栀椀猀 栀漀爀猀攀⸀ ഊ ਀䌀漀甀氀搀 愀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀 栀愀瘀攀 挀漀渀琀爀椀戀甀琀攀搀 琀漀 栀椀猀 猀愀昀攀琀礀㼀  倀漀猀猀椀戀氀礠☀ഊ ਀吀栀椀猀 栀愀猀 氀攀搀 猀漀洀攀 琀漀 挀漀渀挀氀甀搀攀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀 昀椀爀猀琀 琀爀甀攀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀 眀愀猀 搀攀瘀攀氀漀瀀攀搀 渀漀琀 琀漀 椀渀挀爀攀愀猀攀 琀栀攀 猀琀愀戀椀氀椀琀礀 漀昀 琀栀攀 爀椀搀攀爀Ⰰ 戀甀琀 琀漀 瀀爀漀瘀椀搀攀 栀椀洀 眀椀琀栀 愀渀 攀愀猀椀攀爀 愀渀搀 猀愀昀攀爀 洀攀琀栀漀搀 昀漀爀 洀漀甀渀琀椀渀最 栀椀猀 栀漀爀猀攀⸀  䠀椀猀琀漀爀椀挀愀氀氀礀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 昀椀爀猀琀 洀漀甀渀琀椀渀最 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀 搀椀搀 渀漀琀 挀漀洀攀 椀渀 瀀愀椀爀猀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 眀愀猀 愀琀琀愀挀栀攀搀 琀漀 漀渀氀礀 漀渀攀 猀椀搀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 猀愀搀搀氀攀⸀ഊ ਀䌀漀洀椀渀最 昀漀爀眀愀爀搀 椀渀 栀椀猀琀漀爀礀Ⰰ ㄀　　　 礀攀愀爀猀 愀昀琀攀爀 漀甀爀 攀愀爀氀椀攀猀琀 爀攀挀漀爀搀 漀昀 愀 栀漀爀猀攀 戀攀椀渀最 爀椀搀搀攀渀Ⰰ 眀攀 挀漀洀攀 琀漀 琀栀攀 礀攀愀爀 ㌀㘀　 䈀䌀⸀ഊ ਀堀攀渀漀瀀栀漀渀 嬀㌀崀 眀爀漀琀攀Ⰰ ∀吀栀攀 䄀爀琀 漀昀 䠀漀爀猀攀洀愀渀猀栀椀瀀Ⰰ∀ 椀渀 眀栀椀挀栀 栀攀 搀攀猀挀爀椀戀攀猀 琀栀攀 瀀爀漀挀攀猀猀 昀漀爀 洀漀甀渀琀椀渀最 愀 栀漀爀猀攠☀ ഊ ਀∀吀栀攀 洀愀猀琀攀爀Ⰰ 氀攀琀 甀猀 猀甀瀀瀀漀猀攀Ⰰ 栀愀猀 爀攀挀攀椀瘀攀搀 栀椀猀 栀漀爀猀攀 愀渀搀 椀猀 爀攀愀搀礀 琀漀 洀漀甀渀琀⸀  圀攀 眀椀氀氀 渀漀眀 瀀爀攀猀挀爀椀戀攀 挀攀爀琀愀椀渀 爀甀氀攀猀 琀漀 戀攀 漀戀猀攀爀瘀攀搀 椀渀 琀栀攀 椀渀琀攀爀攀猀琀猀 渀漀琀 漀渀氀礀 漀昀 琀栀攀 栀漀爀猀攀洀愀渀 戀甀琀 漀昀 琀栀攀 愀渀椀洀愀氀 眀栀椀挀栀 栀攀 戀攀猀琀爀椀搀攀猀⸀ 䘀椀爀猀琀Ⰰ 琀栀攀渀Ⰰ 栀攀 猀栀漀甀氀搀 琀愀欀攀 琀栀攀 氀攀愀搀椀渀最 爀攀椀渀Ⰰ 眀栀椀挀栀 栀愀渀最猀 昀爀漀洀 琀栀攀 挀栀椀渀ⴀ猀琀爀愀瀀 漀爀 渀漀猀攀ⴀ戀愀渀搀Ⰰ 挀漀渀瘀攀渀椀攀渀琀氀礀 椀渀 栀椀猀 氀攀昀琀 栀愀渀搀Ⰰ 栀攀氀搀 猀氀愀挀欀 猀漀 愀猀 渀漀琀 琀漀 樀攀爀欀 琀栀攀 栀漀爀猀攀✀猀 洀漀甀琀栀Ⰰ 眀栀攀琀栀攀爀 栀攀 洀攀愀渀猀 琀漀 洀漀甀渀琀 戀礀 栀漀椀猀琀椀渀最 栀椀洀猀攀氀昀 甀瀀Ⰰ 挀愀琀挀栀椀渀最 栀漀氀搀 漀昀 琀栀攀 洀愀渀攀 戀攀栀椀渀搀 琀栀攀 攀愀爀猀Ⰰ 漀爀 琀漀 瘀愀甀氀琀 漀渀 琀漀 栀漀爀猀攀戀愀挀欀 戀礀 栀攀氀瀀 漀昀 栀椀猀 猀瀀攀愀爀⸀ 圀椀琀栀 琀栀攀 爀椀最栀琀 栀愀渀搀 栀攀 猀栀漀甀氀搀 最爀椀瀀 琀栀攀 爀攀椀渀猀 愀氀漀渀最 眀椀琀栀 愀 琀甀昀琀 漀昀 栀愀椀爀 戀攀猀椀搀攀 琀栀攀 猀栀漀甀氀搀攀爀ⴀ樀漀椀渀琀Ⰰ 猀漀 琀栀愀琀 栀攀 洀愀礀 渀漀琀 椀渀 愀渀礀 眀愀礀 眀爀攀渀挀栀 琀栀攀 栀漀爀猀攀✀猀 洀漀甀琀栀 眀椀琀栀 琀栀攀 戀椀琀 眀栀椀氀攀 洀漀甀渀琀椀渀最⸀  䤀渀 琀栀攀 愀挀琀 漀昀 琀愀欀椀渀最 琀栀攀 猀瀀爀椀渀最 漀昀昀 琀栀攀 最爀漀甀渀搀 昀漀爀 洀漀甀渀琀椀渀最Ⰰ 栀攀 猀栀漀甀氀搀 栀漀椀猀琀 栀椀猀 戀漀搀礀 戀礀 栀攀氀瀀 漀昀 琀栀攀 氀攀昀琀 栀愀渀搀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 眀椀琀栀 琀栀攀 爀椀最栀琀 愀琀 昀甀氀氀 猀琀爀攀琀挀栀 愀猀猀椀猀琀 琀栀攀 甀瀀眀愀爀搀 洀漀瘀攀洀攀渀琀 ⠀愀 瀀漀猀椀琀椀漀渀 椀渀 洀漀甀渀琀椀渀最 眀栀椀挀栀 眀椀氀氀 瀀爀攀猀攀渀琀 愀 最爀愀挀攀昀甀氀 猀瀀攀挀琀愀挀氀攀 愀氀猀漀 昀爀漀洀 戀攀栀椀渀搀⤀㬀 愀琀 琀栀攀 猀愀洀攀 琀椀洀攀 眀椀琀栀 琀栀攀 氀攀最 眀攀氀氀 戀攀渀琀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 琀愀欀椀渀最 挀愀爀攀 渀漀琀 琀漀 瀀氀愀挀攀 栀椀猀 欀渀攀攀 漀渀 琀栀攀 栀漀爀猀攀✀猀 戀愀挀欀Ⰰ 栀攀 洀甀猀琀 瀀愀猀猀 栀椀猀 氀攀最 挀氀攀愀渀 漀瘀攀爀 琀漀 琀栀攀 漀昀昀 猀椀搀攀㬀 愀渀搀 猀漀 栀愀瘀椀渀最 戀爀漀甀最栀琀 栀椀猀 昀漀漀琀 眀攀氀氀 爀漀甀渀搀Ⰰ 瀀氀愀渀琀 栀椀洀猀攀氀昀 昀椀爀洀氀礀 漀渀 栀椀猀 猀攀愀琀⸀∀ഊ ਀䤀渀琀攀爀攀猀琀椀渀最氀礀 攀渀漀甀最栀Ⰰ 愀猀 挀氀攀愀爀 愀渀搀 氀漀最椀挀愀氀 愀猀 堀攀渀漀瀀栀漀渀 眀愀猀 眀椀琀栀 栀椀猀 椀渀猀琀爀甀挀琀椀漀渀猀 昀漀爀 洀漀甀渀琀椀渀最Ⰰ 栀攀 猀琀椀氀氀 搀椀搀渀✀琀 洀愀欀攀 琀栀攀 氀攀愀瀀 琀漀 愀渀 ∀愀椀搀∀ 椀渀 洀漀甀渀琀椀渀最⸀  䄀渀搀 猀漀 琀栀攀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀✀猀 椀渀瘀攀渀琀椀漀渀 眀愀猀 猀琀椀氀氀 愀渀漀琀栀攀爀 㘀　　 礀攀愀爀猀 愀眀愀礀⸀ഊ ਀吀栀攀 䘀椀爀猀琀 匀琀椀爀爀甀瀀 ⴀ 䄀 吀漀攀 匀琀椀爀爀甀瀀㼀ഊ ਀䰀礀渀渀 圀栀椀琀攀 嬀㐀崀Ⰰ 椀渀 栀椀猀 戀漀漀欀 䴀攀搀椀攀瘀愀氀 吀攀挀栀渀漀氀漀最礀 愀渀搀 匀漀挀椀愀氀 䌀栀愀渀最攀Ⰰ 漀昀昀攀爀猀 栀椀猀 爀攀猀攀愀爀挀栀 爀攀最愀爀搀椀渀最 琀栀攀 昀椀爀猀琀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀⸀  䠀攀 戀攀氀椀攀瘀攀猀 琀栀攀 攀愀爀氀椀攀猀琀 昀漀爀洀猀 漀昀 琀栀攀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀Ⰰ 愀猀 攀瘀椀搀攀渀挀攀搀 椀渀 琀栀攀 猀挀甀氀瀀琀甀爀攀猀 漀昀 匀愀渀挀栀椀 椀渀 䤀渀搀椀愀Ⰰ 椀猀 愀 氀漀漀猀攀 猀甀爀挀椀渀最氀攀 漀爀 猀愀搀搀氀攀ⴀ猀琀爀愀瀀 戀攀栀椀渀搀 眀栀椀挀栀 琀栀攀 爀椀搀攀爀✀猀 昀攀攀琀 眀攀爀攀 琀甀挀欀攀搀⸀ 䤀琀 眀愀猀 洀愀搀攀 漀昀 攀椀琀栀攀爀 爀漀瀀攀 漀爀 氀攀愀琀栀攀爀⸀  吀栀攀 猀挀甀氀瀀琀甀爀攀猀 漀昀 匀愀渀挀栀椀 搀愀琀攀 琀漀 琀栀攀 氀愀琀攀 猀攀挀漀渀搀 挀攀渀琀甀爀礀 䈀⸀䌀⸀  ഊ ਀ഊ"The Great Departure" at the East Gate, Sculptures of Sanchi, India ਀ഊWhite also states to have found evidence of a tiny stirrup for the big toe, of approximately the same time frame. However, as White also observes, riders of colder climates would only be able to use a big-toe stirrup with great difficulty, so it is highly unlikely that it would have been more than an isolated development. ਀ഊCorroborating White's claim, author of Horse Watching, Desmond Morris [5], states a simple loop through which the rider placed his big toe was seen in India sometime between 4th century and the 2nd century B.C. It was felt that this was of limited value for stabilizing a rider, and had no real merit as an aid in mounting a horse. ਀ഊAnother example White cites of an early form of stirrup is upon an engraved Kushan gem, circa 100 A.D. The gem appears to depict some sort of hook-stirrup, but without corroborating evidence, it also seems an isolated example. ਀ഊInterestingly enough, the toe stirrup is not only confined to the Asian continent. ਀ഊKarl H. Reinhard [6], associate professor at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln's School of Natural Resource Sciences and co-author of Learning from the Ancestors: The Omaha Tribe Before and After Lewis and Clark, analyzed the skeletons of the Omaha tribe here in the United States. ਀ഊ"The most revealing discovery is that the Omaha were fully equestrian buffalo hunters by 1770," Reinhard says. "That makes them the first documented equestrian culture in the Northern Plains. This is nearly one hundred years earlier than in the Dakotas." Reinhard documents this by finding similar bone patterns between the Omaha and those of an English cavalry. But a key piece of evidence is unique to the Omaha. "The Omaha used a 'toe stirrup,' which was essentially a thong that went around the big toe," Reinhard explains. "Because riding, mounting, and dismounting puts pressure on the toes, the first toe joints went arthritic prematurely." ਀ഊRegardless of the argument put forth by Lynn White and Desmond Morris, there appears to be quite a wide gap between scholars about the invention of the first stirrup. ਀ഊIn addition to the earlier theories, other scholars believe the first true stirrups were devised in Central Asia during the first century B.C. by a nomadic group known as the Sarmatians. ਀ഊThe stirrup could have spread to other Central Asian peoples, who would have quickly noted that bracing one's feet in a set of stirrups made it much easier to shoot a bow from the saddle. ਀ഊWhile many researchers acknowledge the possibility of a toe stirrup, most prefer to support the earliest reliable representation of stirrups, which came from a Western Jin dynasty (265-316 A.D.) tomb, near Changsha, in China, circa 302 A. D… ਀ഊA pottery figure of a cavalryman displayed a mounting stirrup [7]! ਀ഊThe First Complete Stirrup ਀ഊWestern Jin dynasty (265-316 A.D.) tomb, near Changsha, in China, circa 302 A. D revealed a pottery figure of a cavalryman displaying a mounting stirrup. The mounting stirrup was attached to only one side of the saddle. At the time of its discovery, it was thought to be a mounting stirrup because it was felt that it was too short to be of use once the rider had mounted. ਀ഊThe first known representation of a pair of riding stirrups were the stirrups shown on the Nanjing horse found in a tomb dated 322 A.D. I was not able to find a picture of the Nanjing horse. However I've read that the stirrups were triangular in shape. ਀ഊXianbei site, near Anyang in 1974 revealed the first actual physical stirrup ever discovered. It was thought to have dated from the fourth century. Wooden stirrups formed the core and were covered with gilded bronze plate. It was triangular as well. ਀ഊOnce "invented," the Chinese had refined their metal casting abilities over the previous thousand years to such an extent that they were able to cast stirrups at an extraordinary rate. This lead to the large number of stirrups spread in a relatively short time throughout China, northeast Asia, and Korea, even into Japan. ਀ഊ ਀ഊClay horse, a haniwa, from the Kofun period in the history of Japan. Haniwa horse statuette, complete with saddle and stirrups, 6th century, Kofun period, Japan in the Tokyo National Museum. ਀ഊFrom the 4th century on, the stirrup spread throughout Eurasia by the horsemen of the central Asian steppes. It is uncertain when it was first adopted by the Nomads, however the first confirmed use was by the Alans, an Iranian nomadic group among the Sarmation people. Sarmatians live on the plains between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, north of the Caucasus. ਀ഊSome historians also believe the Huns must have used them to enable their conquests. The Huns were a group of Central Asian nomadic tribes who appeared in Europe in the 4th century. Hun has also become a more general term for a number of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads. ਀ഊBy the 6th century, Sweden had stirrups. This led to the establishment of Thegns, or mounted elite warrior, established during their Vendel Age, or Germanic Iron Age (550 - 793 A.D.). ਀ഊBy the 7th or early 8th century stirrups became known in Persia. Knowledge of stirrups then rapidly spread to other Arab lands and to Byzantium and quickly thereafter to France. ਀ഊBy this time, stirrups provided a number of advantages to the horseback rider. They provided an easy way to mount a horse as contrasted to the earlier methods, using either a wooden stool or leaping directly on to the horse's back. ਀ഊFurthermore, they provided lateral stability while mounted, and, in a particular advantage to mounted warriors, made it much easier to strike to the left or right with a sword while mounted without losing one's seat. ਀ഊWhen used with the contoured saddle, the stability the stirrups provided allowed a mounted warrior to deal powerful blows with a sword, axe, mace, or lance. A fighter, using stirrups and a lance in the couched position could deliver a blow utilizing the energy of his charging horse. ਀ഊStirrups were first indirectly documented in Central Europe during the reign of Charles Martel in the 8th century. Martel prepared for war against the Muslim invaders (who had stirrups, a larger force and superior technology) intent upon getting a foothold in Europe. He trained his army to fight in a formation called the phalanx, which had been used by ancient Greeks to withstand superior numbers and weapons. By his actions at the Battle of Tours and other campaigns, he is credited for preserving Christianity and western civilization, as we know it. ਀ഊ ਀ഊPair of stirrups found in 8th century burial in Holiare, Slovakia. ਀ഊIt took France until the 8th Century before they made the connection between the stirrup and a weapon of war. By fixing the rider firmly on his horse, they created their version of mounted combat. ਀ഊ ਀ഊHowarth, D., 1066, The Year of the Conquest. New York: Penguin Books, 1981. ਀ഊBy 1066, cavalry was a way of life in Europe, but it hadn't made much of an impact in England, who was an isolated country. For years Saxons fought back Viking raids with whatever they had. Swords, spears, battle-axes, stone missiles won more than one battle. The Saxon's first battle with armored cavalry was on a hill near Hastings when William the Conqueror claimed the English crown from the nobleman Harold who had succeeded King Edward. ਀ഊWilliam's armored horse might well have defeated Harold, but fighting uphill and bad timing, Harold's men, fighting from behind shields, savaged the horses with battle-axes and using previous techniques that worked… Harold indeed won the first round, but it must be said, not the war. ਀ഊIt was only after the introduction of the stirrup into Europe in the eighth century that the armored knight began to replace the axe-wielding freeman as the mainstay of the military. ਀ഊLynn White again, in his Medieval Technology and Social Change, offers an interesting hypothesis that the feudal class of the European Middle Ages was a consequence that was in the end, derived from the invention of the stirrup. ਀ഊ"Few inventions have been so simple as the stirrup, but few have had so catalytic an influence on history. The requirements of the new mode of warfare which it made possible found expression in a new form of western European society dominated by an aristocracy of warriors endowed with land so that they might fight in a new and highly specialized way." ਀匀漀 愀昀琀攀爀 琀栀攀 愀爀爀椀瘀愀氀 漀昀 琀栀攀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀 椀渀 䔀甀爀漀瀀攀 戀礀 琀栀攀 攀椀最栀琀栀 挀攀渀琀甀爀礀 愀渀搀 琀栀攀 搀漀洀椀渀愀渀挀攀 琀栀椀猀 最愀瘀攀 琀栀攀 栀漀爀猀攀 愀渀搀 愀爀洀漀爀 椀渀 眀愀爀昀愀爀攀 漀瘀攀爀 昀漀漀琀 猀漀氀搀椀攀爀猀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 猀琀愀琀攀 洀愀搀攀 氀愀渀搀 最爀愀渀琀猀 琀漀 挀攀爀琀愀椀渀 渀漀戀氀攀猀 椀渀 爀攀琀甀爀渀 昀漀爀 琀栀攀椀爀 瀀氀攀搀最攀 琀漀 瀀爀漀瘀椀搀攀 愀爀洀漀爀攀搀 欀渀椀最栀琀猀 漀渀 栀漀爀猀攀戀愀挀欀⸀ഊ ਀吀栀攀 昀爀攀攀洀愀渀 眀椀琀栀 栀椀猀 戀愀琀琀氀攀ⴀ愀砀攀 渀漀 氀漀渀最攀爀 眀愀猀 琀栀攀 昀漀甀渀搀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 琀栀攀 洀椀氀椀琀愀爀礀 洀椀最栀琀 漀昀 琀栀攀 猀琀愀琀攀Ⰰ 琀栀漀甀最栀 琀栀攀 眀愀爀爀椀漀爀 眀愀猀 猀琀椀氀氀 猀甀戀樀攀挀琀 琀漀 挀愀氀氀 眀栀攀渀攀瘀攀爀 栀攀 眀愀猀 渀攀攀搀攀搀⸀ ഊ ਀吀栀攀 攀瘀攀渀琀甀愀氀 爀攀猀甀氀琀 眀愀猀 琀栀攀 搀椀猀琀爀椀戀甀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 氀愀渀搀 琀漀 瘀愀猀猀愀氀猀 漀渀 挀漀渀搀椀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 欀渀椀最栀琀✀猀 猀攀爀瘀椀挀攀㬀 昀爀漀洀 琀栀椀猀 昀漀氀氀漀眀攀搀 琀栀攀 挀爀攀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 愀 昀椀最栀琀椀渀最 攀氀椀琀攀⸀  䤀渀 漀琀栀攀爀 眀漀爀搀猀Ⰰ 琀栀椀猀 洀愀搀攀 昀椀最栀琀椀渀最 渀漀眀 愀 洀愀琀琀攀爀 漀昀 挀氀愀猀猀⸀ ഊ ਀䤀琀 洀甀猀琀 愀氀猀漀 戀攀 渀漀琀攀搀Ⰰ 琀眀漀 漀瀀瀀漀猀椀渀最 瘀椀攀眀猀 琀漀 圀栀椀琀攀✀猀 琀栀攀漀爀礠☀ഊ ਀䤀渀 ㄀㤀㜀　Ⰰ 䈀攀爀渀愀爀搀 匀⸀ 䈀愀挀栀爀愀挀栀 眀爀漀琀攀 愀渀 愀爀琀椀挀氀攀Ⰰ 琀椀琀氀攀搀 ∀䌀栀愀爀氀攀猀 䴀愀爀琀攀氀Ⰰ 䴀漀甀渀琀攀搀 匀栀漀挀欀 䌀漀洀戀愀琀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 匀琀椀爀爀甀瀀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 䘀攀甀搀愀氀椀猀洀Ⰰ∀ 眀栀椀挀栀 眀愀猀 瀀甀戀氀椀猀栀攀搀 椀渀 匀琀甀搀椀攀猀 椀渀 䴀攀搀椀攀瘀愀氀 愀渀搀 刀攀渀愀椀猀猀愀渀挀攀 䠀椀猀琀漀爀礀⸀  䄀氀猀漀 琀栀愀琀 猀愀洀攀 礀攀愀爀Ⰰ 䐀⸀ 䄀⸀ 䈀甀氀氀漀甀最栀 眀爀漀琀攀 愀渀 愀爀琀椀挀氀攀 椀渀 琀栀攀 䔀渀最氀椀猀栀 䠀椀猀琀漀爀椀挀愀氀 刀攀瘀椀攀眀⸀  ഊ ਀䈀漀琀栀 䈀愀挀栀爀愀挀栀 愀渀搀 䈀甀氀氀漀甀最栀 漀瀀瀀漀猀攀 䰀礀渀渀 圀栀椀琀攀 䨀爀⸀✀猀 椀搀攀愀猀⸀  䈀漀琀栀 猀挀栀漀氀愀爀猀 猀琀愀琀攀 琀栀愀琀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀 栀愀瘀攀 渀漀 愀搀瘀愀渀琀愀最攀 椀渀 猀栀漀挀欀 眀愀爀昀愀爀攀Ⰰ 戀甀琀 愀爀攀 漀渀氀礀 甀猀攀昀甀氀 椀渀 愀氀氀漀眀椀渀最 愀 爀椀搀攀爀 琀漀 氀攀愀渀 琀漀 琀漀 琀栀攀 氀攀昀琀 愀渀搀 爀椀最栀琀 漀渀 琀栀攀 猀愀搀搀氀攀 眀椀琀栀漀甀琀 昀愀氀氀椀渀最 漀昀昀⸀  吀栀攀爀攀昀漀爀攀 琀栀攀 猀眀椀琀挀栀 昀爀漀洀 椀渀昀愀渀琀爀礀 琀漀 挀愀瘀愀氀爀礀 椀渀 洀攀搀椀攀瘀愀氀 愀爀洀椀攀猀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 琀栀攀 愀瀀瀀攀愀爀愀渀挀攀 漀昀 昀攀甀搀愀氀椀猀洀 椀猀 渀漀琀 爀攀氀愀琀攀搀 琀漀 琀栀攀 椀渀瘀攀渀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀⸀  ഊ ਀䄀挀挀漀爀搀椀渀最 琀漀 眀栀愀琀 䤀✀瘀攀 爀攀愀搀Ⰰ 琀栀攀猀攀 椀搀攀愀猀 栀愀瘀攀 戀攀攀渀 愀挀挀攀瀀琀攀搀 愀猀 琀栀攀 琀爀甀琀栀 戀礀 猀漀洀攀 猀挀栀漀氀愀爀猀⸀  䤀 戀攀氀椀攀瘀攀 䈀愀挀欀爀愀挀栀 愀渀搀 䈀甀氀氀漀甀最栀 挀愀洀攀 琀漀 琀栀愀琀 挀漀渀挀氀甀猀椀漀渀 瀀漀猀猀椀戀氀礀 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 琀栀攀 䌀栀椀渀攀猀攀 ∀椀渀瘀攀渀琀攀搀∀ 漀爀 挀攀爀琀愀椀渀氀礀 洀愀猀猀 瀀爀漀搀甀挀攀搀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀 愀渀搀 琀栀攀椀爀 挀椀瘀椀氀椀稀愀琀椀漀渀 搀椀搀 渀漀琀 搀攀瘀攀氀漀瀀 昀攀甀搀愀氀椀猀洀⸀ഊ ਀䤀Ⰰ 漀渀 琀栀攀 漀琀栀攀爀 栀愀渀搀Ⰰ 挀栀漀漀猀攀 琀漀 戀攀氀椀攀瘀攀 猀漀洀攀 漀昀 眀栀愀琀 圀栀椀琀攀 猀愀礀猀⸀  䤀 搀漀 琀栀椀渀欀 琀栀愀琀 栀愀瘀椀渀最 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀 挀愀甀猀攀搀 愀 琀椀最栀琀攀爀Ⰰ 洀漀爀攀 挀漀栀攀猀椀瘀攀 挀愀瘀愀氀爀礀⸀  吀栀攀 挀愀瘀愀氀爀礀 搀椀搀 攀瘀攀渀琀甀愀氀氀礀 爀攀瀀氀愀挀攀 琀栀攀 昀漀漀琀 猀漀氀搀椀攀爀⸀  䄀氀猀漀 眀攀愀瀀漀渀猀 眀攀爀攀 椀洀瀀爀漀瘀攀搀 愀渀搀 琀愀挀琀椀挀猀 眀攀爀攀 挀爀攀愀琀攀搀 琀栀愀琀 甀猀攀搀 琀栀椀猀 渀攀眀 ㄀　　　 瀀漀甀渀搀 眀攀愀瀀漀渀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 栀漀爀猀攀Ⰰ 愀猀 椀琀 栀愀搀 渀攀瘀攀爀 戀攀攀渀 甀猀攀搀 戀攀昀漀爀攀⸀ഊ ਀䴀愀琀攀爀椀愀氀猀ഊ ਀䰀礀渀渀 圀栀椀琀攀Ⰰ 椀渀 栀椀猀 戀漀漀欀 䴀攀搀椀攀瘀愀氀 吀攀挀栀渀漀氀漀最礀 愀渀搀 匀漀挀椀愀氀 䌀栀愀渀最攀Ⰰ 漀昀昀攀爀猀 爀攀猀攀愀爀挀栀 爀攀最愀爀搀椀渀最 琀栀攀 昀椀爀猀琀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀⸀  䠀攀 戀攀氀椀攀瘀攀猀 琀栀攀 攀愀爀氀椀攀猀琀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀 眀愀猀 愀 氀漀漀猀攀 猀甀爀挀椀渀最氀攀 漀爀 猀愀搀搀氀攀ⴀ猀琀爀愀瀀 戀攀栀椀渀搀 眀栀椀挀栀 琀栀攀 爀椀搀攀爀✀猀 昀攀攀琀 眀攀爀攀 琀甀挀欀攀搀⸀ 䤀琀 眀愀猀 洀愀搀攀 漀昀 攀椀琀栀攀爀 爀漀瀀攀 漀爀 氀攀愀琀栀攀爀⸀  䄀猀 琀栀攀猀攀 洀愀琀攀爀椀愀氀猀 搀攀琀攀爀椀漀爀愀琀攀 洀漀爀攀 爀愀瀀椀搀氀礀 琀栀愀渀 琀栀攀椀爀 猀甀挀挀攀猀猀漀爀猀Ⰰ 眀漀漀搀 愀渀搀 洀攀琀愀氀Ⰰ 䤀 栀愀瘀攀 渀漀琀 戀攀攀渀 愀戀氀攀 琀漀 昀椀渀搀 瀀椀挀琀甀爀攀猀 漀昀 攀愀爀氀礀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀 椀渀 琀栀漀猀攀 洀愀琀攀爀椀愀氀猀⸀ഊ ਀圀漀漀搀 愀渀搀 洀攀琀愀氀 攀砀愀洀瀀氀攀猀 漀昀 攀愀爀氀礀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猠☀ഊ ਀ऀऀऀഊ Wood Iron ਀ഊ ਀ऀऀഊ ਀ऀऀऀ䈀爀愀猀猀ऀऀऀऀऀ䈀爀漀渀稀攀ഊ ਀䌀漀洀戀椀渀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 洀愀琀攀爀椀愀氀猠☀ഊ ਀ऀഊ ਀ऀ   䰀攀愀琀栀攀爀 愀渀搀 圀漀漀搀ऀऀऀ    䰀攀愀琀栀攀爀 愀渀搀 䤀爀漀渀ഊ ਀     ഊ ਀   䤀爀漀渀 愀渀搀 䌀漀瀀瀀攀爀ऀऀऀ䈀爀愀猀猀 愀渀搀 䌀漀瀀瀀攀爀ഊ ਀匀栀愀瀀攀猀 愀渀搀 匀琀礀氀攀猀ഊ ਀圀栀椀氀攀 琀栀攀 戀愀猀椀挀 昀漀爀洀 漀昀 琀栀攀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀 渀攀攀搀猀 琀漀 猀琀愀礀 挀漀渀猀椀猀琀攀渀琀Ⰰ 愀昀琀攀爀 愀氀氀Ⰰ 椀琀猀 樀漀戀 椀猀 琀漀 栀漀氀搀 愀 昀漀漀琀Ⰰ 眀栀攀琀栀攀爀 昀漀爀 戀愀氀愀渀挀攀 搀甀爀椀渀最 爀椀搀椀渀最 漀爀 琀漀 栀攀氀瀀 洀漀甀渀琀㬀 琀栀攀爀攀 愀爀攀 愀猀 洀愀渀礀 猀栀愀瀀攀猀 愀猀 琀栀攀爀攀 愀爀攀 洀愀欀攀爀猀 漀昀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀 愀渀搀 猀琀礀氀攀猀 漀昀 爀椀搀椀渀最⸀ഊ ਀䔀愀爀氀礀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猠☀ഊ ਀ഊ ਀㘀㄀㠀 ⴀ 㤀　㜀 䄀䐀 ⴀ 吀愀渀最 䐀礀渀愀猀琀礀ഊ ਀ഊ ਀ഊ900 - 1100 AD Viking, made of iron and copper ਀ഊ ਀ഊAfrican … found in Nigeria ਀䴀愀搀攀 昀爀漀洀 漀渀攀 瀀椀攀挀攀 漀昀 椀爀漀渀Ⰰ 搀愀琀攀 甀渀欀渀漀眀渀ഊ ਀ഊ ਀ഊJapanese mid-Edo period (1603 - 1867 AD) ਀ഊ ਀ഊ ਀ഊ ਀倀漀猀琀 ㄀㜀　　 䴀漀漀爀椀猀栀 匀瀀愀椀渀Ⰰ 戀爀愀猀猀 愀渀搀 挀漀瀀瀀攀爀 ഊ ਀ഊ ਀ഊ11th Century, found in Uppland (Sweden) ਀ഊ ਀ഊ ਀ഊ ਀ഊ17th Century ਀唀渀欀渀漀眀渀 氀漀挀愀琀椀漀渀ഊ ਀ഊ ਀ഊLate 18th Century ਀䴀愀搀攀 昀漀爀 愀 匀瀀愀渀椀猀栀 匀椀搀攀 匀愀搀搀氀攀ഊ ਀ഊ ਀ഊUndated, found in Thai, made of iron ਀ഊ ਀ഊ ਀刀攀瀀氀椀挀愀 漀昀 ㄀㜀琀栀 䌀攀渀琀甀爀礀 洀愀搀攀 昀漀爀 倀攀爀甀瘀椀愀渀 倀愀猀漀 䠀漀爀猀攀ഊ ਀ഊ ਀ഊ14th Century sketches ਀匀琀椀爀爀甀瀀 昀爀愀最洀攀渀琀猀 昀漀甀渀搀 椀渀 䰀漀渀搀漀渀ഊ ਀ഊ ਀刀攀瀀氀椀挀愀 漀昀 䈀攀搀漀甀椀渀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀 洀愀搀攀 昀漀爀 琀栀攀 䄀爀愀戀椀愀渀 栀漀爀猀攀ഊ ਀ഊTHE Chevalier D'Arvieux's ਀吀刀䄀嘀䔀䰀匀 䤀一 䄀爀愀戀椀愀 琀栀攀 䐀攀猀攀爀琀ഊOriginally published London, 1718 ਀䌀䠀䄀倀吀䔀刀 堀䤀 伀昀 琀栀攀 䄀爀愀戀 䠀漀爀猀攀猀ഊfrom the KHAMSAT Volume 2 Number 1 January 1985 ਀吀爀愀渀猀氀愀琀椀漀渀 戀礀 䐀爀⸀ 匀栀攀爀洀愀渀 匀琀椀渀猀漀渀ഊ ਀ഊ"Their Saddles are of Wood, covered with Spanish Leather; they have no Panels as ours. Instead of that they make use of a stitched Felt that goes cleverly betwixt the Saddle and the Horses back, standing out about half a foot upon the Crupper. The Stirrups are very short, so that a man fits a Horseback as in a Chair, when he gallops he lifts himself above Saddle, and bears upon the Stirrups, to strike with the greater Vigor. The Bottom of those Stirrups is flat, large, and square; their Corners are pointed, and sharp: They use 'em instead of Spurs to prick their Horses with. This cuts their Skin, which makes the horses so tender, that if they are tickled ever so little in that Part, they manage 'em as they please." ਀ഊThe Stirrup Controversy ਀ഊThe Stirrup Controversy arose after Lynn White wrote his best known work; Medieval Technology and Social Change in 1962. His first sentence sets the stage: ਀ഊThe history of the use of the horse in battle is divided into three periods: first, that of the charioteer; second, that of the mounted warrior who clings to his steed by pressure of the knees; and third, that of the rider equipped with stirrups." ਀ഊPre-stirrup fighting consisted of a man on horseback riding up to battle as quickly as he could. He then dismounted, drew his sword and fought on foot. White argues that stirrups allowed a man to stay seated on his horse while fighting. This in turn, opened up the scope of warfare and created a need for new weapons utilizing the strength of the horse. ਀ഊHow much more devastating to a foot soldier was it to have a heavily armored 1000 pound animal chasing him faster than that soldier could ever hope to run, all while desperately trying to evade a couched lance coming towards him? Even if the foot soldier escaped the lance, the mounted warrior could still use the weight of his horse and armor to crush anything in his path. ਀ഊWhite also wrote, because of the invention of stirrups, Charles Martel (Frankish King ruled from 715 - 741 AD) recognized the military potential of a heavy long-range cavalry and created a whole class of "shock" warriors who wore armor, carried a lance, and subsequently a whole new class of weapons was developed. This new cavalry was able to ride longer and faster than the non-stirrup army they were against. Then mounted archery was created and eventually the cavalry evolved into both an organized light and heavy cavalry. ਀ഊNow, supporting and armoring a knight in the 8th century was quite expensive. Adding to the cost of the horse and then the additional cost of the horse's armor and only a few were able to pay the price. So, Martel started a breeding program for the type of horse he considered suitable for his "shock warriors." ਀ഊHe distributed church land to support them, thus creating the basis for feudalism. ਀ഊSo, White claims that it was because of the invention of the stirrup that Europe invented the feudal system or the giving and holding of land in fief or fee. This resulted in a new relationship being based on lord and vassals, characterized by homage, military service and the resulting legalities of owning property. Feudalism remained in effect from approximately the 9th to the 15th century. ਀ഊNow, the controversy comes in when scholars discount the value White places on the stirrup in their discussion of the importance of the cavalry within the feudal system. ਀ഊTwo points that were made was the effective use of heavily armored cavalry without stirrups that existed long before 700 A.D and the continued use of armored cavalry with stirrups, without feudalism, as in the case of China's culture. Scholars also considered feudalism to be a response to the Viking and Magyar invasions. Feudalism solved their current problem of local defense. ਀ഊAnother point scholars feel was overlooked is training. They felt it was unreasonable to hand a person a horse's bridle and expect him to become a horseman, even with stirrups. Following that logic out to a conclusion, it has been stated that an untrained mass of horsemen does not become an effective cavalry. ਀䌀漀渀挀氀甀猀椀漀渀ഊ ਠ∀ 圀栀攀爀攀 搀椀搀 椀琀 愀氀氀 猀琀愀爀琀㼀  ഊ ਀䘀椀爀猀琀 搀漀挀甀洀攀渀琀攀搀 攀瘀椀搀攀渀挀攀 眀愀猀 䌀栀椀渀愀⸀  伀渀挀攀 ∀椀渀瘀攀渀琀攀搀Ⰰ∀ 琀栀攀 䌀栀椀渀攀猀攀 栀愀搀 爀攀昀椀渀攀搀 琀栀攀椀爀 洀攀琀愀氀 挀愀猀琀椀渀最 愀戀椀氀椀琀椀攀猀 漀瘀攀爀 琀栀攀 瀀爀攀瘀椀漀甀猀 琀栀漀甀猀愀渀搀 礀攀愀爀猀 琀漀 猀甀挀栀 愀渀 攀砀琀攀渀琀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀礀 眀攀爀攀 愀戀氀攀 琀漀 挀愀猀琀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀 愀琀 愀渀 攀砀琀爀愀漀爀搀椀渀愀爀礀 爀愀琀攀⸀  吀栀椀猀 氀攀愀搀 琀漀 琀栀攀 氀愀爀最攀 渀甀洀戀攀爀 漀昀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀 猀瀀爀攀愀搀 椀渀 愀 爀攀氀愀琀椀瘀攀氀礀 猀栀漀爀琀 琀椀洀攀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀漀甀琀 䌀栀椀渀愀Ⰰ 渀漀爀琀栀攀愀猀琀 䄀猀椀愀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 䬀漀爀攀愀Ⰰ 攀瘀攀渀 椀渀琀漀 䨀愀瀀愀渀⸀ഊ ਠ∀ 圀攀爀攀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀 昀椀琀琀攀搀 漀渀琀漀 琀栀攀 瘀攀爀礀 昀椀爀猀琀 猀愀搀搀氀攀㼀ഊ ਀一漀Ⰰ 椀琀 琀漀漀欀 愀瀀瀀爀漀砀椀洀愀琀攀氀礀 ㈀　　　 礀攀愀爀猀 琀漀 搀攀瘀攀氀漀瀀 琀栀攀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀 昀爀漀洀 琀栀攀 琀椀洀攀 洀愀渀 昀椀爀猀琀 爀攀挀漀爀搀攀搀 愀 栀漀爀猀攀 戀攀椀渀最 爀椀搀搀攀渀 甀渀琀椀氀 琀栀攀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀 眀愀猀 漀昀昀椀挀椀愀氀氀礀 搀漀挀甀洀攀渀琀攀搀⸀ ഊ ਀㄀㘀　　 䈀䌀 ⠀栀漀爀猀攀 爀椀搀搀攀渀⤀ ⴀ ㌀　㈀ 䄀䐀 ⠀洀漀甀渀琀椀渀最 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀⤀ഊ ਠ∀ 圀栀愀琀 瀀攀漀瀀氀攀 挀爀攀愀琀攀搀 愀渀搀 戀攀渀攀昀椀琀攀搀 昀爀漀洀 猀甀挀栀 愀渀 椀渀瘀攀渀琀椀漀渀㼀ഊ ਀䤀琀 愀氀氀 猀琀愀爀琀攀搀 眀椀琀栀 䌀栀椀渀愀⸀  匀瀀爀攀愀搀 琀栀爀漀甀最栀漀甀琀 琀栀攀 攀愀猀琀Ⰰ 椀渀挀氀甀搀椀渀最 挀攀渀琀爀愀氀 䄀猀椀愀⸀  䤀渀 琀栀攀 㘀琀栀 挀攀渀琀甀爀礀 匀眀攀搀攀渀 攀猀琀愀戀氀椀猀栀攀搀 琀栀攀椀爀 洀漀甀渀琀攀搀 攀氀椀琀攀 眀愀爀爀椀漀爀⸀  䈀礀 琀栀攀 ㄀　琀栀 挀攀渀琀甀爀礀 椀渀 圀攀猀琀攀爀渀 䔀甀爀漀瀀攀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 洀漀甀渀琀攀搀 挀愀瘀愀氀爀礀 愀渀搀 琀栀攀 洀漀甀渀琀攀搀 欀渀椀最栀琀 眀愀猀 愀渀 攀猀琀愀戀氀椀猀栀攀搀 眀愀礀 漀昀 氀椀昀攀⸀  ഊ ਀䄀渀 愀搀搀攀搀 戀攀渀攀昀椀琀Ⰰ 椀渀 猀漀洀攀 漀瀀椀渀椀漀渀猀Ⰰ 漀昀 琀栀攀 搀攀瘀攀氀漀瀀洀攀渀琀 漀昀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀 眀愀猀 琀栀愀琀 椀琀 爀攀搀攀昀椀渀攀搀 眀愀爀昀愀爀攀⸀  刀椀搀攀爀猀 爀攀愀氀椀稀攀搀 琀栀攀礀 挀漀甀氀搀 戀爀愀挀攀 琀栀攀洀猀攀氀瘀攀猀Ⰰ 眀栀椀挀栀 洀愀搀攀 椀琀 渀漀琀 漀渀氀礀 攀愀猀椀攀爀 琀漀 猀栀漀漀琀 愀 戀漀眀 漀爀 琀栀爀漀眀 愀 猀瀀攀愀爀Ⰰ 戀甀琀 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 戀爀愀挀椀渀最Ⰰ 眀攀爀攀 愀戀氀攀 琀漀 猀栀漀漀琀 漀爀 琀栀爀漀眀 椀琀 昀愀爀琀栀攀爀 愀渀搀 昀愀猀琀攀爀⸀  䄀 爀椀搀攀爀 挀漀甀氀搀 愀氀猀漀 猀琀爀椀欀攀 眀椀琀栀 栀椀猀 眀攀愀瀀漀渀 愀渀搀 甀琀椀氀椀稀攀 琀栀攀 攀渀攀爀最礀 漀昀 栀椀猀 挀栀愀爀最椀渀最 栀漀爀猀攀 琀漀 搀攀洀漀氀椀猀栀 栀椀猀 漀瀀瀀漀渀攀渀琀⸀ഊ ਀匀漀Ⰰ 琀漀 猀甀洀 椀琀 甀瀠☀ഊ ਀䤀渀 琀栀攀 戀攀最椀渀渀椀渀最Ⰰ 愀 猀椀洀瀀氀攀 氀漀漀瀀 漀昀 氀攀愀琀栀攀爀 昀漀爀洀攀搀 椀渀琀漀 漀渀攀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀 愀渀搀 眀愀猀 甀猀攀搀 愀猀 愀渀 愀椀搀 椀渀 洀漀甀渀琀椀渀最 琀栀攀 栀漀爀猀攀⸀ഊ ਀䰀攀愀琀栀攀爀 氀漀漀瀀猀 眀攀爀攀 猀漀漀渀 爀攀瀀氀愀挀攀搀 戀礀 洀攀琀愀氀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀 愀爀漀甀渀搀 ㌀　　 䄀⸀䐀⸀Ⰰ 眀栀椀挀栀 愀琀 昀椀爀猀琀 椀洀椀琀愀琀攀搀 琀栀攀 猀栀愀瀀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 氀攀愀琀栀攀爀 氀漀漀瀀猀⸀  ഊ ਀䔀愀爀氀礀 爀椀搀攀爀猀 猀漀漀渀 昀漀甀渀搀 琀栀愀琀 愀 瀀愀椀爀 漀昀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀 瀀爀漀瘀椀搀攀搀 愀瀀瀀爀攀挀椀愀琀攀搀 猀琀愀戀椀氀椀琀礀 愀渀搀 戀愀氀愀渀挀攀 琀漀 琀栀攀椀爀 爀椀搀椀渀最Ⰰ 攀猀瀀攀挀椀愀氀氀礀 漀瘀攀爀 爀漀甀最栀 琀攀爀爀愀椀渀 漀爀 愀搀瘀攀爀猀攀 挀漀渀搀椀琀椀漀渀猀⸀  ഊ ਀伀渀挀攀 愀爀洀攀搀 栀漀爀猀攀洀攀渀 戀攀最愀渀 琀漀 甀猀攀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀 漀渀 戀漀琀栀 昀氀愀渀欀猀 漀昀 琀栀攀椀爀 栀漀爀猀攀猀Ⰰ 挀愀瘀愀氀爀礀 眀愀爀昀愀爀攀 眀愀猀 琀爀愀渀猀昀漀爀洀攀搀⸀  吀栀攀 爀椀搀攀爀 眀愀猀 渀漀眀 愀戀氀攀 琀漀 爀椀猀攀 甀瀀 椀渀 栀椀猀 猀愀搀搀氀攀 愀渀搀 琀甀爀渀 愀爀漀甀渀搀 琀漀 昀椀爀攀 愀爀爀漀眀猀 愀琀 栀椀猀 瀀甀爀猀甀攀爀猀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 愀氀氀漀眀攀搀 洀漀爀攀 昀爀攀攀搀漀洀 漀昀 洀漀瘀攀洀攀渀琀 眀椀琀栀 栀椀猀 猀眀漀爀搀Ⰰ 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 栀攀 搀椀搀渀✀琀 昀攀愀爀 氀漀猀椀渀最 栀椀猀 戀愀氀愀渀挀攀 愀渀搀 昀愀氀氀椀渀最 漀昀昀⸀  ഊ ਀䄀渀搀 琀栀椀猀 椀渀 琀甀爀渀Ⰰ 攀渀挀漀甀爀愀最攀搀 琀栀攀 甀猀攀 愀渀搀 搀攀瘀攀氀漀瀀洀攀渀琀 漀昀 栀攀愀瘀椀攀爀 眀攀愀瀀漀渀猀Ⰰ 栀攀愀瘀礀 氀愀渀挀攀猀 愀渀搀 栀漀爀猀攀洀攀渀 愀砀攀猀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 愀爀洀漀爀 琀栀愀琀 甀猀攀搀 琀栀攀 栀漀爀猀攀 愀猀 愀 眀攀愀瀀漀渀 椀琀猀攀氀昀⸀ഊ ਀䈀攀琀眀椀砀琀 琀栀攀 猀琀椀爀爀甀瀀 愀渀搀 琀栀攀 最爀漀甀渀搀ⰀഊMercy I asked, mercy I found." ਀圀椀氀氀椀愀洀 䌀愀洀搀攀渀 ⠀㄀㔀㔀㄀ⴀ㄀㘀㈀㌀⤀ഊ ਀䘀漀漀琀渀漀琀攀猀ഊ ਀嬀㄀崀  䔀搀眀愀爀搀猀Ⰰ 䄀洀攀氀椀愀 䈀⸀ ∀刀愀洀猀攀猀✀ 䜀爀攀愀琀 䠀漀爀猀攀猀∀ 倀栀愀爀愀漀栀猀Ⰰ 䘀攀氀氀愀栀猀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 䔀砀瀀氀漀爀攀爀猀⸀ 䠀愀爀瀀攀爀 愀渀搀 䈀爀漀琀栀攀爀猀Ⰰ 一攀眀 夀漀爀欀Ⰰ ㄀㠀㤀㄀⸀ഊ ਀嬀㈀崀  䈀椀瘀愀爀Ⰰ 䄀⸀䐀⸀䠀⸀ ∀吀栀攀 匀琀椀爀爀甀瀀 愀渀搀 䤀琀猀 伀爀椀最椀渀猀∀⸀ 伀爀椀攀渀琀愀氀 䄀爀琀猀Ⰰ 渀⸀猀⸀ ㄀ ⠀㄀㤀㔀㔀⤀㨀 㘀㄀ⴀ㘀㠀⸀ഊ ਀嬀㌀崀  堀攀渀漀瀀栀漀渀Ⰰ ∀吀栀攀 䄀爀琀 漀昀 䠀漀爀猀攀洀愀渀猀栀椀瀀∀Ⰰ 挀漀洀瀀氀椀洀攀渀琀猀 漀昀 琀栀攀 倀攀爀猀攀甀猀 倀爀漀樀攀挀琀 愀琀 吀甀昀琀猀 唀渀椀瘀攀爀猀椀琀礀⸀ഊ ਀嬀㐀崀  䰀礀渀渀 圀栀椀琀攀Ⰰ 䨀爀⸀Ⰰ 䴀攀搀椀攀瘀愀氀 吀攀挀栀渀漀氀漀最礀 愀渀搀 匀漀挀椀愀氀 䌀栀愀渀最攀Ⰰ 伀砀昀漀爀搀Ⰰ ㄀㤀㘀㈀ ⠀瀀愀瀀攀爀⤀⸀ഊ ਀嬀㔀崀  䴀漀爀爀椀猀Ⰰ 䐀攀猀洀漀渀搀⸀ ∀䠀漀爀猀攀眀愀琀挀栀椀渀最∀⸀ 刀愀渀搀漀洀 䠀漀甀猀攀Ⰰ 一攀眀 夀漀爀欀Ⰰ㄀㤀㠀㠀⸀ഊ ਀嬀㘀崀  刀攀椀渀栀愀爀搀Ⰰ 䬀愀爀氀 䠀⸀ 䰀攀愀爀渀椀渀最 昀爀漀洀 琀栀攀 ∀䄀渀挀攀猀琀漀爀猀㨀 吀栀攀 伀洀愀栀愀 吀爀椀戀攀 䈀攀昀漀爀攀 愀渀搀 䄀昀琀攀爀 䰀攀眀椀猀 愀渀搀 䌀氀愀爀欀∀⸀ 唀渀椀瘀攀爀猀椀琀礀 漀昀 一攀戀爀愀猀欀愀ⴀ䰀椀渀挀漀氀渀✀猀 匀挀栀漀漀氀 漀昀 一愀琀甀爀愀氀 刀攀猀漀甀爀挀攀 匀挀椀攀渀挀攀猀Ⰰ ㈀　　㌀⸀ഊ ਀嬀㜀崀  䜀爀愀昀昀Ⰰ 䐀愀瘀椀搀 䄀渀搀爀攀眀⸀  ∀䴀攀搀椀攀瘀愀氀 䌀栀椀渀攀猀攀 圀愀爀昀愀爀攀⸀ ㌀　　ⴀ㤀　　∀Ⰰ 刀甀琀氀攀搀最攀Ⰰ 䰀漀渀搀漀渀 愀渀搀 一攀眀 夀漀爀欀Ⰰ ㈀　　㈀ഊ ਀䈀椀戀氀椀漀最爀愀瀀栀礀ഊBritish Museum, room 46 -- Europe: 15th-18th centuries ਀ഊMetropolitan Museum of Art - Viking room 780 - 1100 A.D. ਀ഊTokyo National Museum - History of Japan ਀ഊBachrach, Bernard S. Charles Martel, Mounted Shock Combat, the Stirrup, and Feudalism, article in Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History, 1970 ਀ഊBullough, D.A. Age of Charlemagne, English Historical Review, University of Oxford 1965 ਀ഊBivar, A.D.H. The Stirrup and Its Origins. Oriental Arts, n.s. 1 (1955): 61-68. ਀ഊBunch, Brian and Hellemans, Alexander, eds. Science & Technology information about Year 302 ce. History of Science and Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. ਀ഊDe Vries, Kelly. Medieval Military Technology. Broadview Press, 1992. ਀ഊEdwards, Amelia B. "Ramses' Great Horses" Pharaohs, Fellahs, and Explorers. Harper and Brothers, New York, 1891. ਀ഊFarris, William. Heavenly Warriors, the Evolution of Japan's Military, 500- 1300. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1992. ਀ഊGies, Frances and Joseph Gies. Cathedral, Forge, and Waterwheel subtitled "Technology and Invention in the Middle Ages". HarperPerennial, 1995 (paper). ਀ഊGraff, David Andrew. Medieval Chinese Warfare. 300-900, Rutledge, London and New York, 2002 ਀ഊIn Search of Ancient Ireland. Educational Broadcasting Corp. 2002 ਀ഊLienhard, John H. The Engines of Our Ingenuity. Oxford University Press, 2003. ਀ഊMorris, Desmond. Horsewatching. Random House, New York,1988. ਀ഊOld World Contacts. The Applied History Research Group. The University of Calgary, 2000. ਀ഊReinhard, Karl H. Learning from the Ancestors: The Omaha Tribe Before and After Lewis and Clark. University of Nebraska-Lincoln's School of Natural Resource Sciences, 2003. ਀ഊStinson, Dr. Sherman. Translation of The Chevalier D'Arvieus's Travels In Arabia the Desert, Chapter XI Of the Arab Horses from the KHAMSAT Volume 2, Number 1, January 1985. Originally published London, 1718. ਀ഊXenophon, The Art of Horsemanship, compliments of the Perseus Project at Tufts University. ਀ഊWhite, Lynn, Jr. Medieval Technology and Social Change. Oxford, 1962 (paper). ਀ഊWhitehouse, Dr David Whitehouse, Sci/Tech Editor. Earliest Writing Found. BBC Online, 1999. ਀ⴀⴀⴀⴀⴀⴀഊCopyright 2008 by Maria Hall, 3152 Brethren Church Road, White Pine, TN 37890. . Permission is granted for republication in SCA-related publications, provided the author is credited. Addresses change, but a reasonable attempt should be made to ensure that the author receives a copy. ਀ഊIf this article is reprinted in a publication, I would appreciate a notice in the publication that you found this article in the Florilegium. I would also appreciate an email to myself, so that I can track which articles are being reprinted. Thanks. -Stefan. ਀ഊ ਀䔀搀椀琀攀搀 戀礀 䴀愀爀欀 匀⸀ 䠀愀爀爀椀猀ऀ匀琀椀爀爀甀瀀猀ⴀ䠀椀猀琀ⴀ愀爀琀ऀ倀愀最攀 ㈀㐀 漀昀 ㈀㐀ഊ ਊ