Houppelande-art - 6/22/98 "The Houppelande C.1355-1450" by Allison Poinvillars de Tours. NOTE: See also the files: houppelandes-msg, cotehardies-msg, p-sumpt-laws-msg. clothing-books-msg, underwear-msg, shoes-msg, textiles-msg. ************************************************************************ NOTICE - This article was submitted to me by the author for inclusion in this set of files, called Stefan's Florilegium. These files are available on the Internet at: http://www.florilegium.org Copyright to the contents of this file remains with the author. While the author will likely give permission for this work to be reprinted in SCA type publications, please check with the author first or check for any permissions granted at the end of this file. Thank you, Mark S. Harris AKA: Stefan li Rous stefan at florilegium.org ************************************************************************ THE HOUPPELANDE C.1355-1450 by Allison Poinvillars de Tours A piece of clothing is never just a piece of clothing. It is part of an entire outfit, and has a past, a present, and leads to the future. The houppelande was worn in England, France, Germany, Italy, and other countries. While local variations of fashions and accessories existed, the basic line seemed to appear almost spontaneously among Europe's capital cities, each of which deplored the current fashion and blamed some other country for inventing it. Visual sources, of a secondary documentarial nature, such as contemporary paintings, illuminations, statuary, tapestries, and brass rubbings, as well as written descriptions in letters, sermons, wills, and inventories are references we need to re-create houppelandes and their accessories. Some accessories, such as shoes, belts, and pouches still exist. This means looking, looking and more looking, yet without falling prey to believing everything we see. Some painters had no more idea of tailoring than I have of iron smelting; their versions of contemporary costume would have been impossible to reproduce. Some of the costumes depicted were deliberately changed from the contemporary to indicate antiquity, foreign lands or something else the painter was telling his viewer. Short sleeves, for example, almost always mean Near-Eastern dress, except when they are shown on a woman either at home or in great distress, as Van der Weyden's Mary Magdalene at the foot of the Cross, when they indicate the depth of distress by showing that she had not stopped to put on her overgown and attach her false sleeves. Short sleeves can indicate lack of time, as when "Death" is shown as a woman with short sleeves, or no sleeves" death comes suddenly to most. Look with care at the illustration you wish to copy. The cotehardie had been the garment which first put an end to the use of cloth in the rectangular shape that it came from the loom. Some of the kirtles that preceded it had some shaping in pattern pieces, but did not stray far from the rectangular. It was also the first garment to be cut along the principle of "conspicuous waste" but was nothing to the amount of both use and waste of the cut of the houppelande. The great amount of fabric in the houppelande produces some problems for the wearer, as do the accessories. The stance must be upright, and slightly backward leaning, in order to balance the elaborate headgear usually worn with houppelandes, and to carry the weight of the fabric, outer layer, occasional interlining, and lining. The arms are often held bent at the elbow, to keep the funnel sleeves out of the dirt, and to show off the rich fabrics of the lining and the undersleeves. The undersleeves may be false, tying into the short sleeve or armscye of the cotehardie beneath. Steps are short, steady, regal. When the shoes with long, pointed toes are worn, the steps begin to be a little mincing. Care must be taken, if wearing a train, to kick it discretely out of the way when turning, and not to kneel on the skirt at Court so that you can't get up, or fall over when you try. Gestures are constrained. Those big sleeves could knock over all sorts of things if the gestures were large and expansive. Brocade is not made more handsome by the addition of gravy. The movements must express elegant stateliness rather than freedom or mobility. Freedom and frivolity exist in thought and attitude, rather than in action. Costume historians and art works provide several suggestions for the cut of the houppelande. Milia Davenport describes the female houppelande as being a gored skirt attached to a tight-fitting bodice, but if this is true, it occurs towards the end of the period of true houppelandes, as they begin to make the transformation into the "goun" of the middle third of the fourteenth century, taking on the "Burgundian" line. Mary Houston shows two diagrams, both of which have a shaped waist before the flare of the skirt. These two are probably more the type of gown of the middle class, either before or after the main period of the true houppelande. She mentions a houppelande of Richard II, illustrated in the Wilton Diptich, which is cut with the straight diagonal line from armpit to hem. The shaped waist would give greater ease in mobility. Herbert Norris describes the cut of the houppelande as being the same as an earlier lady's dress, again with straight or shaped bodice to the waist, which he shows as having several widths of fabric sewn onto the sides of a center panel to produce the desired width. This method of sewing decreasing lengths of additional fabric widths to the center panel is shown in the sixteenth century book of the Spanish tailor, de Alcega, so it is period for us and may very well have been the fourteenth and fifteenth century methods. It has the benefit of keeping the grain and the fabric pattern all on a vertical line while cutting. Thus, it would not matter to the cut of the houppelande whether the fabric width was the "great measure" of Brussels or a 22" width of hand-woven silk. The "great measure" of Brussels wool was probably in excess of 60" wide, since England's laws were already attempting to enforce a limit of 60" width for wool. ____a___ 1 1 ______ 1 1______ 1 1 1 1 ______ 1 1 1 1______ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1______ 1_____ 1_____ 1_____ 1_____ 1 If you sew lengths of fabric together, then cut a sort of triangle, allowing for the neck, armscye, and shoulder shaping at the top of the piece, but drawing straight cutting lines from a to the bottom corners, I believe you will have the four quarters of the houppelande. It may take more or less than five widths of fabric sewn together to get the circumference you wish to have. The shorter the wearer, the shallower the angle, so if making a court houppelande for a very tall man, you might well want seven widths of fabric. / \ The apex of the triangle is actually the top / \ shaping. / \ (I can't figure out how to draw a curve with a keyboard for the bottom.) C. Willet Cunnington states that the houppelande was cut in four pieces, with a seam front and back, and one at each side. This would have made an average, wool houppelande about six yards in circumference at the base, supposing a fabric width of about 60". I believe, from the pictures of engirded versions, the drape and fold of fabric, and the changing heights of the men's belts, that the general cut would have been a segment of a circle, forming a three dimensional cone when joined. If the quarter piece resembled a right angle along the hem and seam line, the angled seam would be excessively on the bias. The true bias stretches, especially when subjected to great weight and you do not want much stretch in a houppelande. Further, when adding gores to enlarge the skirt, the bias side seam line is thrown higher on the side, until it will form a 90 degree angle with the front and back seams. Stand up in that, and you have more weight than ever on that side seam, and gravity has produced an angle of pleats that are not duplicated in the paintings of the period. You also have most of the weight of the garment resting on the outer edge of your shoulder, which is carrying the tremendous weight of your long, funnel sleeve. And if you wore a bagpipe sleeve, the weight wouldn't have been reduced by more than a third. The pie-shaped wedge is the cut, with the neck at the pie point, that duplicates the pleats, and will continue to do so, when both edges of the pie are expanded the same amount by the insertion of gores. The weight of the garment body is now shifted higher, with the straight grain of the fabric running approximately from the side of your neck to the ground, as though you stood in a teepee, with your head out the smoke hole (which has been tailored to fit your upper body). Birbari has a drawing, p. 51, that shows a very wide circle segment; the center point of the straight grain in hers would have the line run from the center front of the neckline to a point on the hem which would be approximately under the arm when the wearer is standing. This would give a true bias line to the garment's center front. If you were 5', according to her grid, you could cut it out of a 48" width. Most paintings would appear to show no seams in either male or female houppelandes, but with that tremendous volume of cloth there had to be many joinings. One male houppelande is quoted by Diana de Marley as being twelve yards in circumference at the hem. The more extreme versions were produced by the addition of both gores and gussets, or godets. You can still make a segment of a circle by using the extended width of cloth formed as Norris and Alcega suggest, but once the garment is on the wearer, the additional widths on the sides fall, making the seam lines appear to be "raying" out from the wearer's feet, and changing the look of the beautiful brocade patterns from which many houppelandes were made. Since the cotehardie has been shown to use gores and gussets, that should be the natural way to cut the houppelande, as well. John the Fearless of Burgundy acquired a houppelande made with 24 gores, which is mentioned by Margaret Scott, in her A Visual History of Costume, the Fourteenth & Fifteenth Centuries, p. 106. The houppelande appears in French literature in 1357. Stella Mary Newton's Fashion in the Age of the Black Prince quotes French royal accounts in 1359, which describe garments made for King Jean while he was a prisoner of the English. She also says, "Machaut's poem, Le Confort d'Ami, is addressed to "Charles the Bad of Navarre" written in 1357. Their men themselves should be dressed alike (in other words, in livery), whereas at the moment one wears blue, another green; There is one who wears a yellow baldrick another wears a houppelande, another a pourpoint. But all wear shoes with long points which have come to be called poulaines." Pp. 70-71. Jean van Eyck's painting, Leal Souvenir, 1432, is a painting of a bust of a man in three-quarters' view, apparently wearing a thick wool houppelande. This shows a narrow, up-standing collar which does seem to be lined, not just edged, with fur, as it leans outward from the neck. The shoulder seam is visible, as is the opening line of the houppelande, which, though closed, has no visible means of closure. The pleats begin a little below the throat, are unconstructed, and deepen as they reach the waist; this can only happen when the garment body is cut as a segment of a circle. However, no seams of gores are visible, so this would have been a four piece houppelande, basically, although we can not see the skirt. Artwork of the period shows a variety of pleat types. The thickness and frequency of the pleats gives an indication of what the fabric might have been. There were very thick, full pleats that must have been equivalent to our coat or blanket wool, and some Italian ones that could only be the thinnest of summer silks. The best wool cloth came from Flanders, and some of the Flemish painters depict solid color gowns that have weight, but pleats that have a crispness rather than soft roundness, which leads me to believe that they are painting a very fine grade of tightly woven wool broadcloth. A current fabric which might duplicate that is a medium Pendleton wool broadcloth. The modern wools which contain polyester will not give a sharp, natural crease, and they ravel. Agnes Geijer says that the best wool cloth, termed broadcloth, had a leather-like solidity which was a prerequisite to cutting the dags of leaf, cross, flame, and other shapes. Most pleats were unconstructed, falling naturally with the weight of the garment, and held in place by the belt. Towards the end of the period, as tailoring and style became more precise, the pleats do begin to appear constructed and arranged, in the fullest gowns of the nobility. Stay tapes were used to hold the pleats in a set position and fullness. These tapes are set horizontally inside the coat, and the inside of the pleats are tacked to them. This can be seen in a painting by Lotto, St. Dominic resuscitating Cardinal Fossanuova's nephew, Carrara Gallery, Bergamo, plate 91 in Birbari. The belt was still often used to keep them in place, but the wearer had a more sophisticated and formal look to him than in the earliest years. Another method of controlling the pleats was to tack them to the lining, or interlining, so that they could not release. The pleats, whether constructed or unconstructed, were not sewn into the shoulder seam. As the houppelande gives way to the gown, there is a compromise style that provides fullness with less cloth than required for the circle segment cut. This style is cut with a yoke to which is attached pleated fabric, front and back. The pleated fabric is cut as a rectangle, rather than a circle segment, so there is little waste. There are numerous examples in Jacqueline Herald's Renaissance Dress in Italy, and even more in Abbigliamento e costume nella pittura italiana: Rinascimento, by F. Cappi Bentivegna, which is great for pictures even if you can't read the Italian text. Some are hewks, or housses, rather than gowns. The hewk is a male style, usually sleeveless but sometimes with hanging sleeves, and is open at the sides of the garment. The hewk was also popular in France. It is often a lighter weight and cooler style than the houppelande, and can be expected to be popular in warmer countries. Plate 29 of the Abbigliamento shows a sort of circle cut hewk, with hanging cap-pleated sleeves, on a man standing behind two ladies in classic houppelandes, so we may suppose the hewk to have begun before the usual illustrations of it. It is really just a fuller example of a tabard, and is like the houppelande in that, over time, it grows to fullness from a straight cut, and then develops a yoke and an economical cutting that is formal in design. There is a sort of female counterpart, in Italy, which is called the giornea, but which is not usually open the entire length of the side seam. Exceptions, which are seen to be open on women, have been painted by Piero della Francesca, on the Queen of Sheba's women, in the Legend of the True Cross series, 1452-1466. There are a few other illustrations as well, but they also seem to be later than the prime time for houppelandes; an outgrowth of the houppelande rather than a contemporary version. Some are cut as circle segments and some with yokes and pleated rectangles, often in the same painting, so these styles were simultaneously used in later years. Plate 39 of the Abbigliamento is by an anonymous Venetian painter, 1450; it shows one woman in a yoke-cut giornea with elaborate dags that are either sewn to the sides of the giornea, or some form of hanging sleeve that is not really a sleeve at all. Belts, in those early years, were worn high, the men's almost as high as the women's. they gradually approached waist level, in the first quarter of the 15th Century, but there the women's belts stopped, and the men's kept going to low hip level at the end of the period. Belts were usually wide and very ornate. Some women wore their belts buckled in back, with the belt tongue hanging down behind. Belts were frequently metal plates, but there were pearled and jeweled ones, as well as tapestry and embroidered ones for the ladies. There are several nice ones "not paintings, the belts themselves" shown in A Missal for A King, that I have not seen in regular costume books. Men's seams were often left open for a short distance from the hem, providing vents. The vents on riding houppelandes were, of course, cut high. These vents showed the fur lining, or were edged with fur strips. Men's hems ranged from trailing on the ground to ankle, calf, knee, and for a few young courtiers, crotch or even above. Ladies' seams were not left open, and the hems were not dagged, but they were trailing. One exception occurred in France, in which the gown hem fabric was dagged onto the fur hem, although Margaret Scott thinks we're looking at animal heads instead of dags. I think the engagement illustration from the Tres Riches Heures is perfectly clear. The ladies, however, made up for lost dags in their sleeves, which were every bit as fanciful as those of the men. Some Italian houppelandes are shown with sleeves composed solely of multiple strings of dags caught together at the shoulders. Others started the dagged opening almost as high as the elbow and let the dags sweep to the floor behind them. The dags were large in shape if they were fur lined, as in the drawing of Duke John IV of Brabant, Plate 65 of Scott's A Visual History of Costume, The Fourteenth & Fifteenth Centuries, but could be small, fine and intricate, as those on the Frenchmen of the Tres Riches Heures. Some dags were integral to the garment and some had appliqued strips of dagging. Men's high collar edges were frequently cut into small dags, somewhat resembling the sixteenth century frill of the shirt collar. Hats, too, abounded with dags to match the gowns. The most frequently seen design for dags is a scalloped edge. Many hood and/or cape edges are cut in tongues of cloth, about the size and shape of tongue depressors, with small scallops along the edge. Heavy fur linings made large and plainly shaped dags necessary. A large but decorative design had a flame shape, and another was a wide rectangle, like a reversed battlement, with small scallops or snips in it. Leaf shapes were also popular. Since our fabrics, with the possible exception of felt, are not good to simply cut and leave unfinished, as they will ravel badly, we can use a liquid called Fraycheck, in place of period fish glue, or we can make our dags with lining (and still use Fraycheck). A self lining is easy, but a contrasting lining is more showy, and many dags were made that way. Make a pattern for your dag shapes out of a grocery bag, with several repeats. Cut out the pattern and use chalk to outline the dags of your fabric. With right sides together, sew around the dag shapes. Run a thin line of Fraycheck just outside the seam line, but try to touch the stitches. When dry, cut around the dags with only abut 1/8" of fabric stitches as seam allowance. Clip curves. Where the design indents, cut right to the stitching: /I\, the I being the scissors cut. Sew again, over the first stitching line exactly, in case the thread got cut. Turn right side out and press carefully, working with your fingers to get the little points, etc., turned out and smooth. Max Boehm describes the baldrics of folly bells, and the extensive German use of bells as accessories for their houppelandes. He says that the bells moved north and south, but not west. Not so. Norris describes the multiple uses of little bells on houppelandes in England, and does give credit for them to Richard II's queen, Anne of Bohemia. Bezants were hung on the baldrics, sewn to the garments, and hung on chains. They were cut of silver or gold in the shape of initials, devices, flowers. Many of these, sewn onto the houppelande by one edge, would flutter or glitter as the wearer moved. Jewels were thickly sewn onto some garments, as were embroidered motifs, mottoes, initials and whatever other sort of fanciful decoration they could think of. Illustrations in the Tres Riches Heures show people wearing what appear to be trailing strings of bezants down their backs. In England, when the Lancasters took over the monarchy, frivolity ceased, and the gowns were plain. Several mentions are made of houppelandes being open all the way down, and buttoned all the way down. I have not found a picture of one buttoned down its full length. However, there are so many paintings which indicate a closing, yet show no means of closure (buttons, hooks, or lacings) that I have to wonder if there were not some hidden closures or ones placed on the inside. I have found no pictures of this, as there are for stay tapes of pleats. Hooks and eyes would be most logical for this, but there may also have been inner plackets with buttons and buttonholes. Textiles and Clothing, c.1150-c.1450, is a book put out by the British Museum, in London, describing Medieval finds from excavations in London. The authors list buttonhole strips of facing which have been applied to a wool garment. Either buttons or lacings could have been used, although when embroidered eyelets are the feature of the strip, one supposes lacing, whereas the lines of horizontal slits, just like our modern buttonhole, are apparently for buttons. Some of the buttonholes, and the edges of openings, are reinforced with tablet woven bands. The threads from the tablets lie parallel to the edge, and the weft is formed by the thread going through a needle, taking a stitch as it reaches the cloth, then passing back through the shed, as the tablets turn. They list a silk tabby strip, which was attached to wool fabric. The long edges have narrow turnings (under), to one of which is still attached a fold length of similar silk. They don't list the use of the companion strip, but it sounds to me like the `modesty placket' that you add to go under your lacing, although they say this piece shows no tension or wear. They think it was a strip used for a loose garment, which would describe a houppelande. There is also a suggestion that the shanks of buttons could be passed through the eyelet holes, passing a lace down the back, through the shanks of the buttons. There is proof of this in the 16th century. In this way, expensive buttons could have been used for different garments. This, too, would prevent tension marks on the eyelets. There are pictures which show fur edging going down the front, halfway to the waist, but showing no further opening. This is reasonable. With the opening slit in front, as in the earlier tunic, the garment can easily be put on over the head, and the closed front would keep out draughts. Except for an Italian summer female version, the houppelande is worn for warmth in cold, draughty castles and markets, as it is an overgarment. Herald mentions that Italians normally used fur edgings rather than fur linings. Both buttons and lacings are shown for the collar closings, and sometimes for the bodice opening. Most houppelandes show no fastenings, but as they often show no seams, this does not prove they didn't have openings down the center front. A possible reconstruction would be a wool houppelande, with the center front having a fur edging, and set behind the opening, a buttonhole strip, or lacing strips. When the lacings are laced, or the buttons buttoned, the fur edges would butt together, without showing the lacing or buttons. The jeweled metal buttons of that time would show well on the cotehardie beneath, if the houppelande were open. For modern temperature differentions, a fastened houppelande might have false cotehardie sleeves, with elaborate buttons from the wrist nearly to the elbow. There is one excellent painting, of Louis II of Anjou, c 1415, shown best in Margaret Scott's A Visual History of Costume, The Fourteenth & Fifteenth Centuries, Plate 56, which shows Louis's bust in profile and clearly reveals the seams of sleeve cap, shoulder, and vertical collar seam which permits the involved construction of the very high collar. This reaches far up the back of the neck and also down into a U shape in the garment back. This type of collar is often edged with fur. This collar can only be made in four pieces, not two. A high collar can be made in one or two pieces, but not one with the neck contours as painted. The rounded low neck in back shows up well in illustrations of "January" in the Tres Riches Heures. Davenport has this illustration, but the one in The High Middle Ages in Germany is large and in color. Some of the servitors have no high collar, but the neck vee opening is edged with fur. The chamberlain's collar is left open. This neck vee in back will become typical in the cut of men's Italian doublets and gowns. While many houppelandes were lined with fur, the inside of the high collar usually was not. The fur, in addition to being extremely itchy in those tight collars, would have provided too much bulk for the collars to be as close fitting as they are portrayed. When high collars are shown to be fur-lined, the collar bends away from the neck. The fur edging could easily be caught in the seam along the top of the collar between outer fabric and lining. However, we see illustrations of finished garments being sent from the tailor to the furrier, for finishing, so that perhaps the fur edging was stitched along the finished collar seam. This might be a good place for narrow fur tails, as they are round and don't need edge finishing. Some open collars indicate that lining was present. A few of these linings appear to be brocade, or embroidered pieces; this would be a good place to put the scraps of an expensive brocade, or a small but elaborate embroidery project. "From the extraordinary collars of the houppelande, so much has been learned about cutting, that, by XVc., collars appear on garments worn by all classes." Davenport, p.293. Collars worn by ordinary men tend to be the low, stand-up collar seen on doublets, paltocks, and Italian houppelandes. Only the nobility could have afforded the superior tailoring of high, shaped collars. Women's houppelande collars were originally as high as men's, in some cases higher, with an outward flare which did not hug the back of the head. As headdresses changed and grew wider and wider, the houppelande collar stays large, and in fact grows much larger, but turns down over the shoulders. In this style, it is shown with a second collar of fine linen over it. Towards the end of the period, the large collars become fur collars, in one layer, rather than the fabric ones covered with linen. Several historians state that this is the collar of the chemise, but I don't think that the chemise is made with a collar in these cases, I think that it is a separate collar which is basted into place for wearing, and which can be removed for laundering. Chemises of the time are shown in miniatures, and none are shown with collars. The elaborate fabrics of which aristocratic houppelandes are made would not take well to laundering; skin oils and cosmetics would stain the turned down collars at the neck break. These stains would not show in the turned-up collars, but never-the-less, a fine linen collar is shown inside the high collar of a woman's houppelande, painted by Pisanello. In addition to being removable for washing, the linen between fur or wool and skin would reduce the itching. Sumptuary laws prevented prostitutes from wearing fur collars. The earliest picture I have found which could be considered a houppelande is the brass rubbing of Marion Grevel, wife of an English wool merchant, who died in 1386. Her gown has the high, close collar, and the fullness of skirt, and is cut without any hint of a waist seam, but the sleeves are tight sleeves, and there is no belt worn. The undersleeves have the `goblet cuff'. The brass of Alice Giffard, wife of the Chief Baron of the Exchequer, died 1400, also shows tight sleeves, no belt, and a high collar. Her gown is so full that the almost-gathered look of fullness goes up into the high collar; that may be an inaccuracy on the part of the engraver. An unknown English couple, c.1395-1400, have matching houppelandes on their brasses, except that his is ankle length. Both have full bag sleeves, goblet-cuffed undersleeves, and buttons at the center of the high collars. The brasses of John Urban and his wife, Joan Reskymmer, c.1410, are very similar. There are the full, bag sleeves, but the undersleeves have wrist-length cuffs. Their high collars are laced, not buttoned, and Joan's has a wide flare. Both John and Joan wear waist-level belts. Clarice de Freville, c.1410, has wide sleeves, fur-lined, on her houppelande, and her collar, while high, has a narrower, lower opening, the base of which is buttoned. De Marly says that the wide, funnel sleeve is the `ducal' sleeve, and the bag sleeves were worn by those of lesser degree who could not copy royalty. Robert de Freville is shown in armor, so perhaps Clarice's sleeves are a mark of rank. All of the wide sleeves shown on women's houppelandes do seem to be of the rank of at least minor nobility, even if they are not the full, dragging length. Funnel, or bombarde, sleeves may have been limited to certain upper ranks, but that was not the case with the bag sleeves. They appear on kings and merchants, queens and nurses. Fullness varies with individual gowns, but there does not appear to be division of rank using this style. Bag sleeves vary in fullness; some are often exceedingly full, some are barely bagged at all. Bag sleeves often have fur cuffs or edges. An engraving Scott describes as `Northern Netherlandish', Plate 71, shows a woman whose bag sleeves have drippings of skinny daggings hanging from what must be the sleeve seam. Gradually, the houppelande loses its extreme width, the sides of the garment lie flat against the body, and only the front and back pleats provide fullness. Men and women no longer resemble each other. Whimsy, bells, bezants, embroidery and the dags vanish. At the same time, the sleeve cap rises to a puffed look. The sleeves become tubular, like stovepipes, or develop slits in their bags so that the hand and arm come through, or they hang from the shoulders in organ-pipe folds, and our houppelande is gone. The stylistic organization of the urban culture of Burgundy has triumphed. GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY (costume and art) de Alcega, Juan. _Tailor's Pattern Book 1589_. Ruth Bean, publisher. Translated and reproduced from the Spanish original. Arnold, Janet _A Handbook of Costume._ Macmillan 1973. Reprinted 1978. Avrill, Francois. _Manuscript Painting at the Court of France. _ Birbari, Elizabeth. _Dress in Italian Painting, 1460-1500_. John Murray Ltd. London, 1975. ISBN 0 7195 2423 7. Bise, Gabriel. _Medieval Hunting Scenes, after Gaston Phoebus, The Hunting Book._ Miller Graphics, Production Liber SA, Fribourg-Geneve, 1978. von Boehn, Max. _Modes And Manners_, translated by Joan Joshua. Benjamin Blom, New York, 1932-35, vol. I. Boucher, Francois. _20,000 Years of Fashion_. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. NY, 1987. Cappi, Bentivegna, F. _Abbigliamento e costume nella pittura italiana: Rinascimento_. Bestetta, Rome, 1962. Clayton, Muriel. _Catalogue of Rubbings of Brasses and Incised Slabs.-_. 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Treasures from the Bibliotheque nationale de France., Yale University Press, 1995. ISBN 0 300 06283 4. -------- Permission is given to use and share this information, but I retain the copyright, and wish to have my name attached to any reproduction. L. Allison Poinvillars de Tours/Lyn M. Parkinson If this article is reprinted in a publication, I would appreciate a notice in the publication that you found this article in the Florilegium. I would also appreciate an email to myself, so that I can track which articles are being reprinted. Thanks. -Stefan. Edited by Mark S. Harris file-msg 12